Waterinfo

All Open Beaches Rating 'Good'

2011-11-28T02:41:00.001-08:00

The Department of Environmental Protection has rated water quality at eight beaches open for swimming "good" for this weekend.

Other beaches have been closed to swimmers since November 1, 2011 for winter.

The eight beaches open for swimming are Big Wave Bay, Clear Water Bay Second, Deep Water Bay, Golden, Media Bay, Repulse Bay, Silverstrand and Stanley Main Beaches.

see more information click here http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/water/beach_quality/bwq_current.html

In Hong Kong Water use too High: Carrie Lam

2011-11-09T23:06:00.000-08:00

Secretary for Development Carrie Lam says Hong Kong's water consumption is high, and can be reduced through public education and promotion of water-saving devices.

She told legislators today the current daily per capita domestic water consumption level in Hong Kong is 220 litres, comprising 130 litres of fresh water and 90 litres of flushing water. The figure exceeds the world average daily per capita consumption of 170 litres.

She said the Government is developing a voluntary water efficiency labelling scheme to promote the use of water-saving devices and inform consumers of the level of water consumption and efficiency of various plumbing fixtures and water-consuming appliances.

The scheme has been implemented in phases for different categories of fixtures and appliances. At present, 163 shower models, 56 types of water tap and 14 washing machines have been registered under the scheme.

Article source: http://www.news.gov.hk/en/categories/environment/html/2011/11/20111109_143307.shtml

DWR Increases Water Delivery Estimate

2010-04-16T08:47:00.000-07:00

SACRAMENTO – With the Sierra snowpack’s water content above average, the Department of Water Resources (DWR) today increased its State Water Project (SWP) allocation to 20 percent.

“As the water picture for this year becomes clearer, we can increase our deliveries to farms and communities throughout the state,” said DWR Director Mark Cowin. “But the aftermath of three years of drought and regulatory restrictions on Delta pumping to protect fish species will keep this year’s allocation far below normal. This underscores, once again, the need to implement long-term solutions to improve water supply reliability.”

Manual and electronic snow survey readings today indicate that statewide, snowpack water content is 106 percent of normal for the date. This time last year, the reading was 81 of normal.

Electronic sensors show northern Sierra snow water equivalents at 126 percent of normal for the date, central Sierra at 92 percent, and southern Sierra at 105 percent.

Snowpack water content normally is at its peak the first of April, although DWR makes a final manual survey the first of May, and electronic readings report conditions daily. DWR may be able to increase the State Water Project allocation to above 20 percent as hydrologists refine runoff projections from today’s snowpack readings and conditions continue to develop.

Lake Oroville, the State Water Project’s principal reservoir, is recovering slowly after three consecutive dry years. Its storage level today is at only 47 percent of capacity, 60 percent of normal for the date. In addition, fishery agency restrictions on Delta pumping continue to reduce the amount of water that can be delivered to contractors and customers in the Bay Area, San Joaquin Valley, Central Coast and Southern California. The final State Water Project allocation, to be set later this spring, will partially depend on how the pumping restrictions to protect fish including Delta smelt, salmon and longfin smelt are applied.

In 2009, the State Water Project delivered 40 percent of customer requests. The average of Project deliveries over the past 10 years is 68 percent of the amount requested by the 29 public agencies with long-term contracts to buy SWP water. The 29 contractors deliver water to more than 25 million Californians and 750,000 acres of irrigated farmland.

DWR, in partnership with the Association of California Water Agencies, will continue to run the Save Our Water program. The program, which was created by Gov. Schwarzenegger’s 2009 drought declaration, aims to educate Californians about easy ways to conserve water indoors and outdoors. Vists the website at www.saveourh2o.org

Stratospheric Water Vapor is a Global Warming Wild Card

2010-02-22T02:59:00.000-08:00

A 10 percent drop in water vapor ten miles above Earth's surface has had a big impact on global warming, say researchers in a study published online January 28 in the journal Science. The findings might help explain why global surface temperatures have not risen as fast in the last ten years as they did in the 1980s and 1990s.

Observations from satellites and balloons show that stratospheric water vapor has had its ups and downs lately, increasing in the 1980s and 1990s, and then dropping after 2000. The authors show that these changes occurred precisely in a narrow altitude region of the stratosphere where they would have the biggest effects on climate.
Water vapor is a highly variable gas and has long been recognized as an important player in the cocktail of greenhouse gases- carbon dioxide, methane, halocarbons, nitrous oxide, and others- that affect climate.

"Current climate models do a remarkable job on water vapor near the surface. But this is different - it's a thin wedge of the upper atmosphere that packs a wallop from one decade to the next in a way we didn't expect," says Susan Solomon, NOAA senior scientist and first author of the study.

Since 2000, water vapor in the stratosphere decreased by about 10 percent. The reason for the recent decline in water vapor is unknown. The new study used calculations and models to show that the cooling from this change caused surface temperatures to increase about 25 percent more slowly than they would have otherwise, due only to the increases in carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.

An increase in stratospheric water vapor in the 1990s likely had the opposite effect of increasing the rate of warming observed during that time by about 30 percent, the authors found.

The stratosphere is a region of the atmosphere from about eight to 30 miles above the Earth's surface. Water vapor enters the stratosphere mainly as air rises in the tropics. Previous studies suggested that stratospheric water vapor might contribute significantly to climate change. The new study is the first to relate water vapor in the stratosphere to the specific variations in warming of the past few decades.

Water Supply is Great Shape in Phoenix

2010-02-11T01:59:00.000-08:00

You may have seen the 2008 water supply ratings recently reported by Sustain Lane. They did not give Phoenix a favorable rating for reliability of water supplies. They are mistaken.

Although we should use water wisely, Phoenix has ample water supplies for years to come:

Phoenix does not depend upon the rainfall that occurs in the Valley for its water. Over one hundred years, the City has developed multiple water sources to create a diversified water portfolio.
In recent years, water conservation efforts, efficient use of reclaimed water for non-potable use, extensive groundwater management, and aggressive leak detection have stretched our available water supplies.
The City conducts effective drought management planning that ensures reliable supplies.

In the last 20 years, Phoenix's per person usage of water has dropped 20 percent. Total water use in Phoenix is no higher today than ten years ago.

Phoenix has gone even further than the sustainability requirements of the State of Arizona. The city has reduced its groundwater use to a minimum and is planning for a sustainable yield, as well as its assured 100 year supply, under conditions of long-term drought and global climate change — not just under normal conditions. And, Phoenix recycles 90 percent of its wastewater, using it in agriculture, energy production, urban irrigation of golf courses and cemeteries, aquifer recharge and riparian wetland maintenance.

Water conservation is promoted as a lifestyle, asking customers to think about water every time they use it.

Through these efforts, Phoenix water supplies have kept pace with demand. The City continues to plan for future growth.

NASA Radar Captures its 1st Haiti Image

2010-02-02T01:10:00.000-08:00

JPL’s Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle Synthetic Aperture Radar (UAVSAR) captured this false-color composite image of the city of Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and the surrounding region on Jan. 27, 2010. Port-au-Prince is visible near the center of the image. The large dark line running east-west near the city is the main airport. UAVSAR left NASA’s Dryden Flight Research Center in Edwards, Calif., Jan. 25, 2010, aboard a modified NASA Gulfstream III aircraft on a three-week campaign that will also take it to Central America.

For more info http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/haiti20100201.html

President Barack Obama Pledges Continued Commitment to Haiti

2010-01-18T04:02:00.000-08:00

President Barack Obama Jan 15th pledged America’s continued commitment to the government and people of Haiti in the aftermath of the devastating earthquake and in recovery efforts.

Speaking from the White House, the president singled out the men and women in uniform who “have moved so swiftly” to help Haitians and thanked troops and search and rescue teams.

“I want you to know that you demonstrate the courage and decency of the American people, and we are extraordinarily proud of you,” Obama said.

With the arrival of the USS Carl Vinson in the Haitian capital of Port-au-Prince, Obama said, a distribution plan for food, water and medical aid is being developed, and will be coordinated among the United States, the government of Haiti, the United Nations and other international partners and aid organizations.

Meanwhile, resources are continuing to move to Haiti from the United States, Brazil, Mexico, Canada, France, Colombia and the Dominican Republic and others, Obama said. The president is scheduled to meet tomorrow with former presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush to discuss ways to enlist the American people in recovery and rebuilding efforts going forward.

For more http://www.defense.gov

Rhizoctonia Hot Water Treatment Eliminates from Azalea Cuttings

2009-12-24T03:42:00.000-08:00

Rhizoctonia, a fungal disease that can be found in many ornamental plants, can be eliminated in azalea by placing plant cuttings in a hot water treatment, an Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientist and his university collaborator have found.

Rhizoctonia web blight is an annual problem in azalea cultivars grown in containerized nursery production in the southern and eastern United States. The fungus lives on all azalea plant surfaces and in the pine bark soil throughout the year, yet only causes plant damage in July and August, when heat and humidity peak.

The disease first affects the azalea’s internal leaves during June, with signs often unseen by the grower. Within 24 hours, the shrub can go from appearing healthy to having one-third of its leaves rapidly turn brown and die.

Rhizoctonia is undetectable to the human eye, which means the pathogen can be carried on stem cuttings used to propagate new plants and circulated within nursery stock for years. Current control efforts include treating plants with fungicide to stop the severe plant damage. However, dipping stem cuttings in a disinfestant or fungicide solution has not controlled spread of the fungus, so better control methods are needed.

For more info http://www.ars.usda.gov

Water buybacks get to the billion Dollar Mark

2009-12-06T22:19:00.000-08:00

The Federal Water Minister Senator Penny Wong said the buyback had purchased the corresponding of about 651 giga liters of water.

But the South Australian senator acknowledged a need of water in the Murray Darling Basin meant the buyback was yet to deliver important new flows.

"Obviously what is actually allocated in that right will be less and will depend on what State Governments allocate but that is the case across the basin," she said.

"Regrettably we are not seeing a lot of allocations because we have not got a lot of water but the significant thing is this water that will go to the rivers as and when water is available."

The world's looming "water gap"

2009-12-01T02:58:00.000-08:00

There's good and bad news from a sweeping new report on the world's water scarcity out this week from McKinsey & Co., and commissioned by such water-dependent companies as Coca-Cola, SAB Miller, Nestle and Syngenta, along with the World Bank/International Finance Corp.

The bad: Global demand for water already exceeds supply - about 1.1 billion people don't have access to clean water - and the so-called water gap is increasing at an accelerating rate.

The good: Cost-effective, sustainable solutions are obtainable to close the gap, particularly if governments and business focus on reducing demand rather than trying to generate additional supply.

The challenge: Getting beyond the nostrum that water is a "human right" so that water, which is perceptibly a scarce resource, can be priced in a way that drives conservation.

One more thing to know: Water issues are at least as complex as energy, and all water problems are local, so generalizing about water, while inevitable, is invariably misleading.

National Water resource Census

2009-11-27T04:04:00.000-08:00

The 21st Century brings a fresh set of water resource challenges. Water shortage and use variance have become more commonplace in many areas of the United States – even in standard water years – for irrigation of crops, for growing cities and communities, for energy production, and for the environment and class protected under the law. Much has changed since the last overall assessment of water resources for the Nation was published by the Water Resources Council in 1978.

It is time for a comprehensive examination of using what we have cultured during the past thirty years and with up-to-date capabilities. In response to a request from Congress, the USGS released a report in 2002 entitled, Concepts for National Assessment of Water Availability and Use, Circular 1223. The circular outlines a broad framework by which a national estimation could take place and advocates using 21 water availability in the United StatesWater Resources Regions for the study units.

In 2005, USGS embarked on a pilot study of water availability in the Great Lakes Basin. The pilot focuses on accepting the dynamics of the water resources in the basin in terms of the flows and yields of both ground and surface water and demonstrates the importance of water-use data to quantifying water availability.

Haryana promoting use of solar water heating systems

2009-11-17T04:50:00.000-08:00

CHANDIGARH: In a bid to save energy, the Haryana Renewable Energy Development Agency (Hareda) has so far installed as many as 1,412 solar heating systems in the State resulting in a saving on 18.13 million kilowatt of electricity annually.

"Solar water heating technology has emerged as a cost effective and environment friendly option for water heating applications all over the world," State's power and renewable energy minister, Mahendra Partap Singh said.

He said that installation of 1,000 solar water heating systems of 100 litre capacity each could save one megawatt of power and at the same time mitigate the problems posed by global warming.

"A 100 litre solar water heating system could avoid emission of 1.5 tonnes carbon dioxide annually," he claimed.

Singh pointed out that given the utility of solar water heating systems, the state government had made the use of this system mandatory in industries, where hot water is required for processing including hospitals and nursing homes, hotels, jail barracks, canteens, housing complexes set up by the Group Housing Societies or Housing Boards.

To promote the installation of solar water heating systems in the state, a number of incentives were being given by the State Government that included rebate in the electricity bills.

Article source: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com

Water on the Moon Established by NASA Crashes

2009-11-14T00:41:00.000-08:00

There's water on the moon—and a "significant amount" of it, too, members of NASA's recent moon-crash mission, LCROSS, announced today.

In October, NASA crashed a two-ton rocket and the SUV-size LCROSS (Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite) into the enduringly shadowed crater Cabeus on the moon's South Pole.

The crashes were part of an effort to kick up proof of water on the moon (picture).

(Read more on the LCROSS mission's moon target.)

Despite disappointing many amateur astronomers on Earth, who had been expecting to see a giant plume of lunar dust and ice crystals, the moon-water mission was a success, NASA says. (See NASA 'Moon Bombing' a Hit, But LCROSS Impact Invisible?")

The LCROSS team took the known near-infrared light signature of water and compared it to the impact spectra LCROSS near-infrared recorded after the probe had sent its spent rocket crashing into the moon.

A spectrometer helps identify the composition of materials by examining which wavelengths of light they emit or absorb.

"We got good fits" for the data graphs, said Anthony Colaprete, LCROSS's principal investigator, at today's press discussion at the NASA Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, California.

For more information http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LCROSS/main/prelim_water_results.html

Quality of Water from Domestic Wells in the United States

2009-11-02T21:45:00.000-08:00

This study from the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) assesses water-quality conditions for about 2,100 domestic wells across the United States. As many as 219 properties and contaminants, including pH, major ions, nutrients, trace elements, radon, pesticides, and volatile organic compounds, were measured. Fecal indicator bacteria and additional radionuclides were analyzed for a smaller number of wells. The large number of contaminants assessed and the broad geographic coverage of the present study provides a foundation for an improved understanding of the quality of water from the major aquifers tapped by domestic supply wells in the United States.

The results of this study are described in two USGS publications, including an overview of the study findings (Circular 1332) and a detailed technical report on data sources, analyses, and results (Scientific Investigations Report 2008-5227). Both publications can be downloaded in PDF format from the NAWQA website (see below). Also available in PDF format are two related articles in the Water Well Journal of the National Ground Water Association, which briefly summarize USGS study findings and general information on domestic well maintenance, siting, and testing.

WSDOT begins in-water test pile and noise study for SR 520 bridge project

2009-10-27T03:24:00.000-07:00

SEATTLE –WSDOT begins work in Lake Washington and Portage Bay on Oct. 23 to study potential noise reduction measures during in-water pile driving. A pile is a circular steel column that is driven into the ground to provide support for bridge structures. This study will help determine the best pile installation methods that minimize effects on the surrounding communities, as well as fish and wildlife in this area.

Dave Becher, SR 520 Program Construction Manager, noted that “This study will cost less than a million dollars of the $4.65 billion program budget, yet will allow us to test innovative technologies to help us reduce noise during pile driving. This up-front expenditure should allow us to minimize impacts during pile driving as well as more accurately estimate the cost for in-water steel in Portage Bay and Union Bay.”

Working from a large barge, crews will install nine steel test piles north of SR 520 between Portage Bay and the western high rise in Lake Washington. The study will allow crews to test soil conditions on the lake bottom, monitor underwater and airborne noise, and evaluate potential noise reduction methods that could benefit people, fish, and wildlife during construction. Each of the piles is between 40 and 120 feet long, and will be installed using a combination of vibratory and impact hammers. The test piles will be removed after all monitoring work is complete.

Malibu water treatment payments could increase $1,000 a month

2009-10-12T02:58:00.000-07:00

If regional water quality officials approve a planned ban on septic systems in central Malibu as expected, residential property owners in the pretentious area would be on the hook for $1,000 a month to pay for a centralized wastewater treatment system.

Commercial property owners benefiting from the treatment system could be needed to lay out significantly more, the city said.

Malibu said in a statement that such a system would cost $52 million, more than three times the $16.7-million projection that the Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Control Board has optional at recent community workshops.

Upset at what it calls Malibu's slow pace of correcting water pollution issues in Malibu Creek, Malibu Lagoon and at Surf rider Beach, the water board has proposed a prohibition on septic systems in the city's core.

The Water Cycle: Springs

2009-09-30T21:56:00.000-07:00

What is a spring?

A spring is a water resource formed when the side of a hill, a valley bottom or other excavation intersects a flowing body of ground water at or below the local water table, below which the subsurface material is saturated with water. A spring is the result of an aquifer being filled to the point that the water overflows onto the land surface. They range in size from intermittent seeps, which flow only after much rain, to huge pools flowing hundreds of millions of gallons daily.

Springs are not limited to the Earth's surface, though. Recently, scientists have discovered hot springs at depths of up to 2.5 kilometers in the oceans, generally along mid-ocean rifts (spreading ridges). The hot water (over 300 degrees Celsius) coming from these springs is also rich in minerals and sulfur, which results in a unique ecosystem where unusual and exotic sea life seems to thrive.

How are springs formed?

Springs may be formed in any sort of rock. Small ones are found in many places. In Missouri, the largest springs are formed in limestone and dolomite in the karst topography of the Ozarks. Both dolomite and limestone fracture relatively easily. When weak carbonic acid (formed by rainwater percolating through organic matter in the soil) enters these fractures it dissolves bedrock. When it reaches a horizontal crack or a layer of non-dissolving rock such as sandstone or shale, it begins to cut sideways, forming an underground stream. As the process continues, the water hollows out more rock, eventually admitting an airspace, at which point the spring stream can be considered a cave. This process is supposed to take tens to hundreds of thousands of years to complete.

Water flow from springs

The amount of water that flows from springs depends on many factors, including the size of the caverns within the rocks, the water pressure in the aquifer, the size of the spring basin, and the amount of rainfall. Human activities also can influence the volume of water that discharges from a spring—ground-water withdrawals in an area can reduce the pressure in an aquifer, causing water levels in the aquifer system to drop and ultimately decreasing the flow from the spring. Most people probably think of a spring as being like a pool of water—and normally that is the case. But, as this picture of the wall of the Grand Canyon in Arizona, USA shows, springs can occur when geologic, hydrologic, or human forces cut into the underground layers of soil and rock where water is in movement.

Spring water is not always clear

Water from springs usually is remarkably clear. Water from some springs, however, may be "tea-colored." This picture shows a natural spring in southwestern Colorado. Its red iron coloring and metals enrichment are caused by ground water coming in contact with naturally occurring minerals present as a result of ancient volcanic activity in the area. In Florida, many surface waters contain natural tannic acids from organic material in subsurface rocks, and the color from these streams can appear in springs. If surface water enters the aquifer near a spring, the water can move quickly through the aquifer and discharge at the spring vent. The discharge of highly colored water from springs can indicate that water is flowing quickly through large channels within the aquifer without being filtered through the soil.
This water is cold and clear—is it fit to drink?

The quality of the water in the local ground-water system will generally determine the quality of spring water. The quality of water discharged by springs can vary greatly because of factors such as the quality of the water that recharges the aquifer and the type of rocks with which the ground water is in contact. The rate of flow and the length of the flowpath through the aquifer affects the amount of time the water is in contact with the rock, and thus, the amount of minerals that the water can dissolve. The quality of the water also can be affected by the mixing of freshwater with pockets of ancient seawater in the aquifer or with modern seawater along an ocean coast.

So, should you feel confident about whipping out your canteen and filling it with cool and refreshing spring water? No, you should be cautious. The temperature of an Ozark spring comes from its passing through rock at a mean annual temperature of 56 degrees Farenheit. The water is crudely filtered in the rock, and the time spent underground allows debris and mud to fall out of suspension. If underground long enough, lack of sunlight causes most algae and water plants to die. However, microbes, viruses, and bacteria do not die just from being underground, nor are any agricultural or industrial pollutants removed. By the way, no, this man is not getting a drink from this tempting spring. He is a USGS hydrologist sampling the near-boiling water from a spring in Wyoming.

Water Effect Videos

2009-09-21T02:40:00.000-07:00

Public gets another look at Spokane River Water Quality

2009-09-17T22:17:00.000-07:00

The Washington Department of Ecology (Ecology) has made substantial changes to the draft water-quality improvement plan to restore dissolved oxygen in the Spokane River and Lake Spokane, warranting a new public review period.

The new comment period opens today and continues through Oct. 15, 2009. The Spokane River/Lake Spokane Dissolved Oxygen Water Quality Improvement Plan, often referred to as the total maximum daily load (TMDL) report, will guide work toward a healthier Spokane River in compliance with water quality standards for dissolved oxygen.

A public meeting is planned for 6-9 p.m., Thursday, Sept. 24, 2009, at the Spokane Community College’s Sasquatch Room in the Lair Building #6, 1810 N Greene St., Spokane.

“This document has been controversial and the subject of many years of community discussion,” said Water Quality Program Manager Kelly Susewind. “We heard the community’s concerns during the previous public comment period and we have worked hard on this draft plan to address those concerns. Now it’s time to take one more look.”

The water quality improvement plan outlines how the community will reduce phosphorus and other substances in the Spokane River and Lake Spokane to prevent algae blooms, increased growth of aquatic plants and the related declines in Lake Spokane’s dissolved oxygen. Under the federal Clean Water Act, when a body of water fails to meet water quality standards for certain pollutants, Ecology must study the problem and produce a plan to improve water quality.

Phosphorus is the primary nutrient causing excess algae and plant growth in the Spokane River and Lake Spokane. It behaves like fertilizer, causing algae and other aquatic plants to grow and thrive. When the plants decompose, they use up dissolved oxygen that fish need to breathe. More algae means less oxygen.

In addition, unsightly algae blooms can become toxic and cause nuisance smells or human skin irritations. They can make Lake Spokane unhealthy for swimming, and compromise its ecological balance.

The Spokane River / Lake Spokane Dissolved Oxygen Water Quality Improvement Plan will lead to reducing phosphorus pollution from industrial and municipal pipes by more than 90 percent. Its phosphorous limits for industrial and municipal discharges are among the most stringent in the country.

Unique to this improvement plan, the industrial and municipal “point-source” (from a pipe) dischargers are required to help reduce phosphorus from other diffuse, “non-point” sources as well. Non-point sources include farms, septic systems, stormwater runoff, animal waste, and fertilizers used at home. In addition, the plan gives Avista Corp., operator of Long Lake Dam, a portion of the responsibility to improve dissolved oxygen levels in Lake Spokane.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), working with Ecology, the Idaho Department of Environmental Quality and the Spokane Tribe of Indians hired experts at Portland State University to conduct new computer modeling after the EPA changed its procedures in 2008. Instead of measuring “background” levels of phosphorus and other nutrients at the Idaho/Washington border, EPA reversed course and said background levels used should be from Lake Coeur d’Alene, miles upriver.

This change in course changed the numbers used to calculate how much phosphorus each industry and municipality along the river is allowed to discharge on both sides of the state line. Changes were made in the water quality improvement plan based on the new course, new computer modeling and two prior public comment opportunities in the past two years.

Water quality models are mathematical tools that are used to represent a water system. By entering all the data into a model, scientists can visualize, predict, and determine water quality factors that may be causing pollution. They can see what the river’s levels of phosphorus might be under different scenarios, and from there, good decisions can be made.

USGS will track cause and extent of ground sinking near California Aqueduct

2009-09-04T22:39:00.000-07:00

Historically, extensive pumping of groundwater from the San Joaquin Valley aquifer system caused groundwater levels to decline, resulting in as much as 28 feet of land subsidence. The importation of surface water to the San Joaquin Valley in the 1970s reduced demand for groundwater, resulting in a recovery of groundwater levels and a reduced rate of land subsidence.

Groundwater pumping in the Valley has increased in recent years as drought and fish-protection measures have curtailed surface-water deliveries.

for more information http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=2300

NOAA Report Explains Sea Level Anomaly this Summer along the U.S. Atlantic Coast

2009-09-01T05:20:00.000-07:00

Persistent winds and a weakened current in the Mid-Atlantic contributed to higher than normal sea levels along the Eastern Seaboard in June and July, according to a new NOAA technical report.

After observing water levels six inches to two feet higher than originally predicted, NOAA scientists began analyzing data from select tide stations and buoys from Maine to Florida and found that a weakening of the Florida Current Transport—an oceanic current that feeds into the Gulf Stream—in addition to steady and persistent Northeast winds, contributed to this anomaly.

“The ocean is dynamic and it’s not uncommon to have anomalies,” said Mike Szabados, director of NOAA’s Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services. “What made this event unique was its breadth, intensity and duration.”

The highest atypical sea levels occurred closer to where the anomaly formed in the Mid-Atlantic, where cities like Baltimore, Md., at times experienced extreme high tides as much as two feet higher than normal. Data from NOAA’s National Water Level Observation Network tide stations, Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, and National Data Buoy Center, are published in the report.

Impacts of the event were amplified by the occurrence of a perigean-spring tide, the natural timing of the season and month when the moon is closest to the Earth and its gravitational pull heightens the elevation of the water. The combined effects of this tide with the sea level anomaly produced minor flooding on the coast.

“The report is a good first assessment,” said NOAA Oceanographer William Sweet, Ph.D. “However, NOAA, with our academic partners, should continue to investigate the broader causes behind the event. Further analysis is needed to fully understand what is driving the patterns we observed.”

Article source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2009/20090831_tides.html

Boil-water advisory ends for East King County development

2009-08-26T21:42:00.000-07:00

OLYMPIA - Residents of the Riverbend development in East King County no longer have to boil their drinking water. The water has been retested and meets safe drinking water standards.

The Riverbend Homeowners Association water system issued the advisory Friday evening after routine monitoring tests showed that E. coli might be in the system. However, 10 additional water samples were collected and tests show the current water quality is good.

The advisory applied only to Riverbend Homesites, consisting of 533 homes and about 1,600 people. The development is off Interstate 90 Exit 32, east of North Bend.

The Water Cycle and Climate Change

2009-08-21T23:05:00.000-07:00

The hydrologic cycle describes the pilgrimage of water as water molecules make their way from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere, and back again. This gigantic system, powered by energy from the sun, is a continuous exchange of moisture between the oceans, the atmosphere, and the land.

Climate Change

Amongst the highest priorities in Earth science and environmental policy issues confronting society are the potential changes in the Earth's water cycle due to climate change. The science community now generally agrees that the Earth's climate will undergo changes in response to natural variability, including solar variability, and to increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols. Furthermore, agreement is widespread that these changes may profoundly affect atmospheric water vapor concentrations, clouds, and precipitation patterns. For example, a warmer climate, directly leading to increased evaporation, may well accelerate the hydrologic cycle, resulting in an increase in the amount of moisture circulating through the atmosphere. Many uncertainties remain, however, as illustrated by the inconsistent results given by current climate models regarding the future distribution of precipitation.

Quality of Water from Domestic Wells in the United States

2009-08-18T23:15:00.000-07:00

The National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) assesses water-quality conditions for about 2,100 domestic wells across the United States. As many as 219 properties and contaminants, including pH, major ions, nutrients, trace elements, radon, pesticides, and volatile organic compounds, were measured. Fecal indicator bacteria and additional radionuclides were analyzed for a smaller number of wells. The large number of contaminants assessed and the broad geographic coverage of the present study provides a foundation for an improved understanding of the quality of water from the major aquifers tapped by domestic supply wells in the United States.

The results of this study are described in two USGS publications, including an overview of the study findings (Circular 1332) and a detailed technical report on data sources, analyses, and results (Scientific Investigations Report 2008-5227). Both publications can be downloaded in PDF format from the NAWQA website (see below). Also available in PDF format are two related articles in the Water Well Journal of the National Ground Water Association, which briefly summarize USGS study findings and general information on domestic well maintenance, siting, and testing.

For more information http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/studies/domestic_wells/

Study sees Dramatic Drop in Indian Ground Water

2009-08-12T22:41:00.000-07:00

NEW DELHI — Excessive irrigation and the unrelenting thirst of tens of millions of people are causing groundwater levels in northern India to drop dramatically, a problem that could lead to severe water shortages, according to a study released Wednesday.

The study comes as India's struggles with water have become a major political issue. The problem reaches across the country's vast class divide, touching everyone from residents of elite neighborhoods where the taps regularly go dry to poor farmers in desperate need of irrigation to grow their crops.

A man cups his hands to drink water from a roadside tap, near Gahroh village some 125 kilometers (78 miles) from Amritsar, India, Tuesday, Aug. 11, 2009. Excessive irrigation and the unrelenting thirst of tens of millions of people are causing groundwater levels in north India to drop dramatically, a problem that could lead to severe water shortages, according to a study lead by Matthew Rodell of the United States' NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, released Wednesday. (AP Photo/Altaf Qadri)

6 Louisiana Companies Fined for Violating the Clean Water Act

2009-08-06T03:32:00.000-07:00

Contact Information: Dave Bary or Anthony Suttice at 214-665-2200 or r6press@epa.gov

(Dallas, Texas – August 5, 2009) The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has fined six Louisiana companies for violating federal Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasure (SPCC) regulations outlined under the federal Clean Water Act.

Federal inspections of the bulk storage facilities in May 2009 revealed a variety of violations though the violations differed at each facility. As an example: No SPCC plans were available, facilities were not fully fenced and entrance gates were not locked or guarded when sites were unattended, and containment systems, including walls and floors were not sufficient to contain oil spills. Mobile or portable storage containers were not positioned to prevent discharged oil from reaching waterways, spill prevention briefings were not scheduled and conducted periodically, and SPCC plans had inadequate or no discussion of facility security. The inspections also revealed plans were inadequate or did not discuss facility transfer operations and pumping, no training on the operation and maintenance of equipment to prevent discharges, no training on discharge procedure protocols, and no training on applicable pollution control laws, rules and regulations.

The companies inspected and fined were:

A-1 Electrical Contractors, Inc., 2783 Lapalco Boulevard, Harvey LA, $1,350
Joe’s Landing, 4811 Privateer Boulevard, Barataria LA, $1,100
Salty’s Marina, 117 Highway 22 East, Madisonville LA, $850
Southern Seaplane, Inc., #1 Cogville Drive, Belle Chasse LA, $700
Westwego Export Terminal, 933 River Road, Westwego LA, $700
Stanco, Inc., Vehicle Maintenance Yard, 70459 Highway 59, Abita Springs LA, $650

As part of an Expedited Settlement Agreement with EPA, the companies have provided certification that all deficiencies have been corrected.

Earth's Biogeochemical Cycles, Once in Concert, Falling Out of Sync

2009-08-04T02:49:00.000-07:00

What do the Gulf of Mexico's "dead zone," global climate change, and acid rain have in common? They're all a result of human impacts to Earth's biology, chemistry and geology, and the natural cycles that involve all three.

On August 4-5, 2009, scientists who study such cycles--biogeochemists--will convene at a special series of sessions at the Ecological Society of America (ESA)'s 94th annual meeting in Albuquerque, N.M.

They will present results of research supported through various National Science Foundation (NSF) efforts, including coupled biogeochemical cycles (CBC) funding. CBC is an emerging scientific discipline that looks at how Earth's biogeochemical cycles interact.

"Advancing our understanding of Earth's systems increasingly depends on collaborations between bioscientists and geoscientists," said James Collins, NSF assistant director for biological sciences. "The interdisciplinary science of biogeochemistry is a way of connecting processes happening in local ecosystems with phenomena occurring on a global scale, like climate change."

A biogeochemical cycle is a pathway by which a chemical element, such as carbon, or compound, like water, moves through Earth's biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

In effect, the element is "recycled," although in some cycles the element is accumulated or held for long periods of time.

Chemical compounds are passed from one organism to another, and from one part of the biosphere to another, through biogeochemical cycles.

Water, for example, can go through three phases (liquid, solid, gas) as it cycles through the Earth system. It evaporates from plants as well as land and ocean surfaces into the atmosphere and, after condensing in clouds, returns to Earth as rain and snow.

Researchers are discovering that biogeochemical cycles--whether the water cycle, the nitrogen cycle, the carbon cycle, or others--happen in concert with one another. Biogeochemical cycles are "coupled" to each other and to Earth's physical features.

"Historically, biogeochemists have focused on specific cycles, such as the carbon cycle or the nitrogen cycle," said Tim Killeen, NSF assistant director for geosciences. "Biogeochemical cycles don't exist in isolation, however. There is no nitrogen cycle without a carbon cycle, a hydrogen cycle, an oxygen cycle, and even cycles of trace metals such as iron."

Now, with global warming and other planet-wide impacts, biogeochemical cycles are being drastically altered. Like broken gears in machinery that was once finely-tuned, these cycles are falling out of sync.

Knowledge about coupled biogeochemical cycles is "essential to addressing a range of human impacts," said Jon Cole, a biogeochemist at the Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies in Millbrook, N.Y., and co-organizer of the CBC symposium at ESA.

"It will shed light on questions such as the success of wetland restoration and the status of aquatic food webs. The special CBC conference sessions at ESA will explore future research needs in environmental chemistry, with a focus on how global climate change may impact various habitats."

Earth's habitats have different chemical compositions. Oceans are wet and salty; forest soils are rich in organic forms of nitrogen and carbon that retain moisture.

The atmosphere has a fairly constant chemical composition--roughly 79 percent nitrogen, 20 percent oxygen, and a 1 percent mix of other gases like water, carbon dioxide, and methane.

"Seemingly subtle chemical changes may have large effects," said Cole.

"Consider that global climate change is caused by increases in carbon dioxide and methane, gases which occupy less than ½ of one percent of the atmosphere. Now more than ever, we need a comprehensive view of Earth's biogeochemical cycles."

The study of coupled biogeochemical cycles has direct management applications.

The "dead zone" in the Gulf of Mexico is one example. Nitrogen-based fertilizers make their way from Iowa cornfields to the Mississippi River, where they are transported to the Gulf of Mexico. Once deposited in the Gulf, nitrogen stimulates algal blooms.

When the algae die, their decomposition consumes oxygen, creating an area of water roughly the size of New Jersey that is inhospitable to aquatic life. Protecting the Gulf's fisheries--with an estimated annual value of half-a-billion dollars--relies on understanding how coupled biogeochemical cycles interact.

A better understanding of the relationship between nitrogen and oxygen cycles may help determine how best to use nitrogen fertilizers, for example, to avoid dead zones.

Useful NSF Web Sites:
NSF Home Page: http://www.nsf.gov

NSF News: http://www.nsf.gov/news/

For the News Media: http://www.nsf.gov/news/newsroom.jsp

Science and Engineering Statistics: http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/

Awards Searches: http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/

USDA Announces $58 Million To Improve Water Quantity and Quality in Agricultural Production

2009-07-30T22:22:00.000-07:00

U.S. Department of Agriculture's Natural Resources Conservation Service Chief Dave White today announced nearly $58 million for water conservation and water quality improvements on agricultural working lands. The funding was made available for 63 projects in 21 states through the Agricultural Water Enhancement Program.

"We must take steps to protect and preserve our water resources, and the Obama Administration is committed to using this program to provide financial and technical assistance to farmers and ranchers to improve water conditions on their land," said White.

The Agricultural Water Enhancement Program (AWEP) promotes ground and surface water conservation and improves water quality by helping farmers and ranchers implement agricultural water enhancement activities. With the services and resources of other conservation partners, AWEP allows the Federal Government to leverage investment in natural resources conservation.

Landowners can obtain funding through AWEP for several types of projects, including:

Water quality or water conservation plan development, including resource condition assessment and modeling;
Water conservation restoration or enhancement projects, including conversion to the production of less water-intensive agricultural commodities or dry land farming;
Water quality or quantity restoration or enhancement projects;
Irrigation system improvement or irrigation efficiency enhancement;
Activities designed to mitigate the effects of drought and climate change; and
Other related activities deemed by the Secretary to help achieve water quality or water conservation benefits on agricultural land.

AWEP was established by the 2008 Farm Bill and funding comes from the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) administers the program for USDA. NRCS implements AWEP by entering into EQIP contracts directly with agricultural producers.

All AWEP recipients must meet EQIP requirements. Though participating AWEP producers do not need to have existing EQIP contracts, they must be eligible for EQIP. All partner proposals were selected competitively. Proposals for priority areas may have received higher rankings, and include property undergoing conversion of agricultural land from irrigated to dry land farming; projects that help producers meet regulatory requirements; and projects located where there is a high percentage of agricultural land and producers in a region or area.

Approved AWEP Projects and Funding by State:
Arkansas - 1 project - $1,383,417

California - 15 projects* - $18,079,101

Colorado - 1 project - $333,000

Florida - 1 project - $1,000,000

Georgia - 2 projects - $2,000,000.00

Iowa - 1 project - $158,950

Idaho - 4 projects - $6,920,000

Illinois - 1 project - $49,440

Indiana - 2 projects* - $554,000

Michigan - 1 project* - $1,500,000

Mississippi - 2 projects - $2,400,000

North Carolina - 1 project - $100,000

North Dakota - 5 projects - $2,253,352

Nebraska - 5 projects - $2,590,000

New Jersey - 1 project - $400,000

New Mexico - 4 projects - $3,328,537

New York - 1 project $500,000

Oklahoma - 1 project - $275,000

Oregon - 8 projects* - $3,605,879

Texas - 5 projects - $10,425,000

Washington - 1 project - $53,600

Total - 63 projects - $57,909,276

Carbon Sequestration: Implications for Wyoming

2009-07-28T23:54:00.000-07:00

While capture and underground storage, or sequestration, of carbon dioxide may be a viable climate change mitigation option in some states including Wyoming, its potential risks require further study.

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) research hydrologist Dr. Yousif Kharaka will present a talk in Cheyenne, Wyo. about the feasibility and implications of capturing and storing the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide underground in depleted oil fields and deep rock formations with salty aquifers.

“In order to slow global warming and related climate change, the capture and storage of carbon dioxide may be an important component,” said Kharaka. “We have been evaluating a variety of projects using different techniques in different geologic formations for long-term storage of carbon dioxide.”

However, the potential for the carbon dioxide and the salty water into which it is injected to move into drinkable groundwater is a risk that needs to be carefully assessed for any site where injection is being considered.

“A key question to storing carbon dioxide—how much of the gas will leak out of the rock in which it is injected—remains unanswered, and is just one of the many unknown components of the process,” Kharaka said.

Wyoming has areas where the geology and groundwater have potential for storing the carbon dioxide, and several sites in the State are currently being investigated as carbon dioxide storage locations.

Kharaka’s talk, which is open to the public, will take place at 10:30 a.m. on August 6, 2009 at the Laramie County Library in the Cottonwood Room, Cheyenne, Wyo.

We Spread John's Ashes in the Indian Ocean

2009-07-24T22:04:00.000-07:00

On this Memorial Day weekend we sailed out into the Indian Ocean in a dhow, an Arab sailboat of ancient design, and placed John’s ashes in the most crystal clear blue-green water we have ever seen.

For almost two hours we sailed, smiled, cried, and remembered John.

There were a number of coincidences that made us believe that John was with us.

First, it had been rainy and overcast for the previous three days, but when we woke up on Sunday morning the sky was blue and welcoming. It was almost as if John was telling us he was ready and inviting us to move forward.

Second, Faisal made it to Zanzibar the night before the ceremony despite numerous obstacles while flying from Sudan to Kenya and then Zanzibar, with a vehicle breakdown and an unscheduled landing in Kilimanjaro in-between. After all of that, who could doubt he was meant to be there?

Finally, the predator crows which had invaded the resort for the previous three days disappeared on Sunday in an interesting twist.

On that morning we took the box with John’s ashes and headed to the sea.

While on the dhow, we asked our guide if we could go out past the reef, but there was a language barrier and we weren’t getting an answer. After a lot of confusion someone asked, “Where are we going?” And the funniest moment of the whole day came when the response to our question was “Sailing!”

We all broke out laughing and then glided into remembering our favorite funny stories about John. It was amazing how we remembered so many things that were said about him at the funeral ... the story about him clapping his hands while riding his bicycle out of respect for the chief he was passing on the road and then promptly flying over the handlebars; the story about him commenting to one of his high school friends when sitting in the back of his pickup truck how great it was to be in a pickup and not have chickens pooping on his head or babies crying on his lap; and other stories of how he always made us laugh and smile.

It was then time to raise our glasses and toast our friend John and his mother Jane for sharing him with us and begin the process of scattering his ashes.

One by one we poured his ashes into the beautiful, crystal clear water and just as we finished we turned to see a flock of seagulls rise up off a dhow into the sky. It was an incredible moment because for the past few days we had commented on the fact that there were only crows, and no seagulls, on the beach.

But there they were, spreading their white wings and lifting off into the sky. The timing and symbolism seemed to speak for itself.

Peaceful, beautiful, tranquil, heaven bound.

Duwamish-Area firm fined for Industrial Stormwater Permit Violations

2009-07-22T21:50:00.000-07:00

BELLEVUE – The Washington Department of Ecology has fined Fog Tite Inc. $18,000 for illegally discharging industrial wastewater into a storm drain and for failing to properly monitor discharges of industrial storm water into city storm drains.

Seattle storm drains serving the manufacturer of concrete meter boxes and catch basins – located at 4819 West Marginal Way S.W. – flow to the Duwamish Waterway.

Fog Tite connected drain lines to a city storm drain outside the facility without permits or approvals several years ago. The company discharges caustic water and sediment from its production process areas and its outdoor work yard into the drain line.

“Ignoring the city is permit process inevitably resulted in Fog Tite connecting its drain line to the storm drain instead of the sewer,” said Kevin Fitzpatrick, Ecology’s regional water-quality supervisor. “They’ve been discharging poorly-treated industrial storm water and process wastewater directly to the Duwamish for years. An industrial facility in this day and age has a duty to know where its industrial discharges are going.”

Businesses can arrange to discharge industrial wastewater into the sanitary sewer but must have authorization from King County to do so, and may need to provide pre-treatment. Fog Tite has begun applying to the city and county for a legal sewer connection for its process wastewater and contaminated storm water.

Fog Tite also failed to submit quarterly monitoring reports to Ecology on storm water discharges, as required by the state industrial storm water general permit.

“The self-reporting permit system reduces costs for companies and for the state,” Fitzpatrick explained, “and permitted facilities must do the required monitoring and reporting. Truthful and accurate self-reporting is fundamental in keeping our waterways clean and safe.”

Inspectors from Ecology and the city of Seattle uncovered the drain line violation earlier this year.

Ecology had first visited Fog Tite in March 2009 as part of a Duwamish Urban Waters Initiative program to visit businesses that are likely pollution sources to storm drains or sanitary sewers, lack environmental permits, or are potential generators of hazardous waste. A technical specialist helps each company identify whether it needs permits or can make voluntary improvements to its environmental practices.

Ecology and the city of Seattle made a follow-up inspection in May. A city dye test showed that all of Fog Tite’s production area and outdoor drains went to the city storm-drain system, and not the sanitary sewer as the company had claimed.

Fog Tite may seek an Ecology review of the penalty or file an appeal with the Washington State Pollution Control Hearings Board within 30 days.

The Urban Waters Initiative is a cooperative program aimed at controlling sources of pollution to the Duwamish Waterway. The 2007 Legislature established the Initiative, which also operates along Tacoma’s Commencement Bay and the Spokane River in Spokane.

The Initiative supports Ecology’s work as a co-manager with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency of the Lower Duwamish Waterway cleanup site, a 5.5-mile stretch of the Duwamish upstream from Harbor Island. The Initiative also aids in Ecology’s priorities of reducing toxic threats and supporting the Puget Sound Initiative, a comprehensive effort by local, tribal, state and federal governments, business, agricultural and environmental interests, scientists, and the public to restore and protect the Sound.

JPL, Caltech, City of Los Angeles to Team on Energy/Water Initiatives

2009-07-21T22:01:00.000-07:00

PASADENA, Calif. - Los Angeles Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa announced a first-of-its-kind partnership between the City of Los Angeles, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (DWP) and NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., and its managing institution, the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, to establish Los Angeles as a powerhouse for demonstrated energy and water innovation. This partnership will leverage JPL's intellectual assets directly to the DWP to reduce water usage and greenhouse gas emissions and, in the process, stimulate green job growth.

Mayor Villaraigosa, JPL Director Charles Elachi and Los Angeles DWP General Manager David Nahai made the announcement today at a JPL ceremony to sign the memorandum of understanding.

"The City of Los Angeles, JPL and DWP are standing at the forefront of the clean technology revolution that will drive the 21st century economy," Mayor Villaraigosa said. "This partnership will harness Los Angeles' unparalleled creative capital and entrepreneurial spirit to develop clean and green technologies that will spur job growth across the board from research, development, construction and finance."

The goal of this partnership is to provide a pipeline for innovative energy and water solutions directly to the DWP. The program serves as an international model for water and energy solutions.

The collaboration teams Caltech, one of the world's leading academic institutions of science and technology, and JPL, its operating division and a world leader in robotic space exploration, to fulfill the City of Los Angeles' commitment to future water and energy demand in a reliable, sustainable and economical way.

JPL and Caltech will apply their extensive expertise in climate change science, remote sensing, environmental engineering and systems design to assist the city and the DWP in developing, maturing and deploying innovative technologies to improve energy efficiency, increase the use of renewable energy sources, conserve water and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. As the largest municipal utility in the United States, the DWP provides safe, reliable drinking water and electricity to more than 3.8 million residents and businesses, helping to sustain life, the environment and the city's economic prosperity.

"We are proud that JPL technology and expertise will be part of this collaboration to help improve energy efficiency and protect our water supply -- one of our most precious natural resources," said JPL Director Charles Elachi.

Under the terms of the three-year agreement, the participants declare their mutual intent to collaborate on developing water and energy efficiency solutions and renewable energy technologies. The participants will work with other local universities such as the University of Southern California and The University of California Los Angeles, to make energy and water technology assessments, develop models and test beds, perform technology demonstrations, and provide data on global change from Earth science satellites, airborne platforms and ground-based instruments to assist the city in making informed decisions.

"The agreement we are signing today represents a groundbreaking partnership for developing innovative energy and water solutions to the environmental challenges facing our city and our planet," said Los Angeles DWP General Manager David Nahai. "Through it we aim to develop real-world solutions based on unparalleled scientific expertise."

The region's arid climate and large population mean that any shortage in water supply can have acute effects, which can be further exacerbated by climate change. One project already being investigated under the collaboration could have immediate applications to Southern California's current critical water shortage. Much of the DWP's water supply comes from the Eastern Sierra Nevada, from Mono Lake and the Owens Valley via the California Aqueduct. The department's vast land holdings include Owens Lake, an ancient dry lakebed whose blowing dust can impact air quality for Owens Valley residents. To help reduce dust on Owens Lake, the department and its team of contractors is installing one of the world's largest shallow flooding systems, which is a computer-controlled network of sprinklers that currently covers more than 14 square miles of the ancient lakebed. But this flooding system consumes significant water-water that is consequently unavailable to help satisfy the city's residential and industrial needs.

Under the collaboration, JPL and Caltech are investigating the development of a remote sensing instrument that would measure the lakebed's surface moisture in order to precisely predict when water needs to be applied. Such an instrument would permit more efficient use of the Owens Lake sprinkler system, thereby conserving precious water resources.

This is only one example of the fruits of this collaboration; the participants have already submitted a series of joint proposals to the Department of Energy to develop and deploy advanced energy technologies. These proposals involve projects to reduce agricultural energy and water consumption; develop models for predicting the availability of solar, wind and wave energy resources; develop robust communications architectures for smart grid applications; and develop efficient technologies for pre-processing food waste used to produce biogases and renewable energy.

The agreement also calls for the DWP to construct a "Sustainable Technology Demonstration Building." This new building will showcase to the public innovative methods, products and technologies to reduce energy and water consumption and increase renewable energy.

EPA awards $4.2 million in Recovery Act funds to clean up underground petroleum leaks in Minnesota

2009-07-19T22:27:00.000-07:00

In an effort to protect people where they live, work, and play, EPA announced the distribution of $4.2 million to Minnesota under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 to assess and clean up underground storage tank petroleum leaks. The greatest potential hazard from a leaking underground storage tank is that the petroleum or other hazardous substances seep into the soil and contaminate groundwater, the source of drinking water for nearly one-third of Americans.

"We're providing immediate growth opportunities for communities across the nation, as well as long-term protection from dangerous pollution in the land and water," said EPA Administrator Lisa P. Jackson. "EPA is putting people to work by serving our core mission of protecting human health and the environment."

This money is part of $197 million appropriated under the Recovery Act to address shovel-ready sites nationwide contaminated by petroleum from leaking underground storage tanks. The funds will be used for overseeing assessment and cleanup of leaks from underground storage tanks or directly paying for assessment and cleanup of leaks from federally regulated tanks where the responsible party is unknown, unwilling or unable to finance, or the cleanup is an emergency response.

EPA regional underground storage tank programs will enter into a cooperative agreement with Minnesota Pollution Control Agency in July 2009. The cooperative agreement will include more detailed descriptions of state spending plans.

"The Recovery Act support for underground storage tank cleanup is a great investment in environmental protection and will provide long-term economic benefits for Minnesota," said Bharat Mathur acting regional administrator in Chicago.

President Obama signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 on February 17, 2009, and has directed that the Recovery Act be implemented with unprecedented transparency and accountability. To that end, the American people can visit Recovery.gov to see how every dollar is being invested.

Emergency Rule Closes New Groundwater Withdrawals in Upper Kittitas County

2009-07-17T22:00:00.000-07:00

The emergency rule that closes upper Kittitas County to all new groundwater withdrawals, the agency announced Thursday, July 16.

After nearly two years of negotiations, Ecology was unable to gain a commitment from the Kittitas County Board of Commissioners that they were willing to move forward with a memorandum of agreement and alternative rule approach that would have limited the uncontrolled proliferation of so-called “exempt groundwater wells” in upper Kittitas County.

Since 1998, nearly 3,000 wells have been drilled in Kittitas County, prompting concerns that groundwater pumping in the headwaters region of the county threatens senior water users and streamflows in the Yakima Basin. A number of parties, including the citizens group Aqua Permanente, the Yakama Nation, and the city of Roslyn, have asked that Ecology close the groundwater to further appropriation while a groundwater study is completed.

Earlier this week, an emergency rule expired that provided a mechanism for Ecology and the County to co-manage groundwater related to housing developments. The temporary rule reflected commitments the parties made last year in a formal Memorandum of Agreement (MOA), and had been revised and updated three times while the parties worked towards agreement on a permanent groundwater management rule.

“We recognize economic vitality is directly tied to water in the Yakima Basin – and we have been looking for an approach that would have allowed some limited new uses while also protecting the rights of senior water right holders,” explained Ecology director Jay Manning. “We had hoped to move forward as partners with the county to protect this vital resource until more is known about groundwater supplies in the upper county.

“We thought we had reached an agreement that would allow for some development in the upper county and at the same time protect the rights of current and future water users and streamflows in the Yakima River and its tributaries.”

A groundwater study designed to gain a better understanding of the connection between groundwater and surface waters was funded by the Legislature and will commence soon.

“Rather than close the groundwater during the study period, Ecology had proposed to partner with the County to
1. Llimit exempt wells to certain locations and reduced water volumes;
2. Require metering of water use, including withdrawals from exempt wells;
3. Require notice to prospective property buyers of potential water shortages,” Manning explained.

“The county has struggled to come to a decision and has missed three previous decision deadlines related to finalizing an agreement with Ecology. Faced with a management gap, we are adopting this temporary rule.”

The emergency rule will be in place for 120 days.

Some new water uses will be allowed under the emergency rule, but only if the depletion of the source will be fully mitigated. Mitigation can generally be achieved by acquiring and transferring or retiring another existing water right from the same source. Some existing sources of mitigation water are already available and Ecology is developing a water banking system to allow for access to mitigation water by new water uses.

Manning noted the agency remains open to a partnership with the county, and is willing to continue negotiations regarding the proposed partnership approach, but that the agency had to put interim protections in place.

For more information: http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wr/cro/kittitas_wp.html

New Steps to Improve Water Quality

2009-07-13T00:31:00.000-07:00

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has made available comprehensive reports and data on water enforcement in all 50 states. This is part of Administrator Lisa P. Jackson’s larger effort by to enhance transparency, promote the public’s right to know about water quality and provide information on EPA’s actions to protect water under the Clean Water Act.

Administrator Jackson directed EPA’s Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance (OECA) to develop an action plan to enhance public transparency regarding clean water enforcement. In the memo, she also calls for stronger enforcement performance at federal and state levels and a transformation of EPA’s water quality and compliance information systems.

In keeping with this directive, EPA has posted detailed information on the current state of clean water compliance and enforcement in each state, and copies of the latest clean water enforcement and compliance performance reports for each state to the agency’s Web site. EPA also launched new Web-based tools to help the public search, assess, and analyze the data the agency used to help prepare those reports.

These actions are among of several aggressive steps taken by Administrator Jackson to improve the nation’s water quality by increasing the transparency and effectiveness of the agency’s national Clean Water Act enforcement program.

The administrator’s memo directed the agency to take several actions, including:

Improve and enhance the information available on the EPA website on compliance and enforcement activities in each state, showing connections to local water quality where possible;
Provide information in a user-friendly format form that is easily understood and useable by the public;
Raise the bar for clean water enforcement performance and ensure enforcement is taken against serious violations that threaten water quality; and
Improve EPA’s enforcement performance in states where EPA directly implements the clean water program.

More information on the state-by-state water reports: http://www.epa.gov/compliance/state/srf/index.html

More information on EPA and state water enforcement data:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/data/results/performance/cwa/index.html

Usda Announces Funding Available For Communities To Assess Future Water And Wastewater Infrastructure Projects

2009-07-11T00:22:00.000-07:00

"Many people in smaller communities throughout the country are suffering because their local infrastructure is in desperate need of repair, and this funding will enable these communities to get the technical expertise they need to make these much-needed improvements," said Vilsack. "One of the primary goals of the Recovery Act is to rebuild our communities, and this investment will help us to meet the basic need of providing clean, safe water infrastructure in struggling communities."

The funding will be provided under USDA Rural Development's Rural Water and Wastewater Circuit Rider Program to enable the National Rural Water Association to add 15 water and 71 wastewater technical assistance staff in 2009 and 2010 to help rural communities operate and maintain water and wastewater infrastructure, and provide training and other technical assistance to local staff throughout the country. Known as Circuit Riders, these technical assistance staff will help rural communities prepare proposals for water and wastewater systems, manage construction, offer on-site expertise and ensure that health and environmental protection requirements are met. The assistance provided by Circuit Riders keeps water and wastewater systems in compliance with EPA rules and reduces - often by thousands of dollars - repair and maintenance costs borne by small rural communities that lack sufficient financial resources.

For example, last year, a Circuit Rider in Sedona, Ariz., helped train local water operators on fire hydrant repair. The training enabled the water operators to fix four inoperable hydrants. By repairing and not buying new hydrants, the town was able to save an estimated $10,000. Also in 2008, a Circuit Rider from the Alabama Rural Water Association helped conduct a survey to detect the source of a major water leak that prevented more than 20 customers from receiving water. The Macon County Water Authority in Tuskegee, Ala., will use the survey's findings in its infrastructure rehabilitation plans. USDA's Rural Development funding to state rural water associations will enable other small towns like these have access to technical staff and resources needed to operate and maintain water infrastructure.

The first $4.1 million in funding will be for technical assistance services performed between June 1, 2009, and October 31, 2009. The remainder will be used beginning November 1, 2009. In addition to the $14.2 million, USDA Rural Development anticipates making Recovery Act funds available later in the year through a competitive grant process for further technical assistance services. All states and the Territory of Puerto Rico are eligible to apply.

President Obama signed The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 into law on February 17, 2009. It is designed to jumpstart the nation's economy, create or save millions of jobs and put a down payment on addressing long-neglected challenges so our country can thrive in the 21st century. The Act includes measures to modernize our nation's infrastructure, enhance energy independence, expand educational opportunities, preserve and improve affordable health care, provide tax relief, and protect those in greatest need.

More information about USDA's Recovery Act efforts is available at www.usda.gov/recovery.

Ground-Water Storage and Ground-water storage

2009-07-03T04:54:00.000-07:00

Ground-water storage is water existing for long periods below the Earth's surface

Large amounts of water are stored in the ground. The water is still moving, possibly very slowly, and it is still part of the water cycle. Most of the water in the ground comes from precipitation that infiltrates downward from the land surface. The upper layer of the soil is the unsaturated zone, where water is present in varying amounts that change over time, but does not saturate the soil. Below this layer is the saturated zone, where all of the pores, cracks, and spaces between rock particles are saturated with water. The term ground water is used to describe this area. Another term for ground water is "aquifer," although this term is usually used to describe water-bearing formations capable of yielding enough water to supply peoples' uses. Aquifers are a huge storehouse of Earth's water and people all over the world depend on ground water in their daily lives.

The top of the surface where ground water occurs is called the water table. In the diagram, you can see how the ground below the water table is saturated with water (the saturated zone). Aquifers are replenished by the seepage of precipitation that falls on the land, but there are many geologic, meteorologic, topographic, and human factors that determine the extent and rate to which aquifers are refilled with water. Rocks have different porosity and permeability characteristics, which means that water does not move around the same way in all rocks. Thus, the characteristics of ground-water recharge vary all over the world.

To find water underground, look under the (water) table

I hope you appreciate my spending an hour in the blazing sun to dig this hole at the beach. It is a great way to illustrate the concept of how at a certain depth the ground, if it is permeable enough to allow water to move through it, is saturated with water. The top of the pool of water in this hole is the water table. The breaking waves of the ocean are just to the right of this hole, and the water level in the hole is the same as the level of the ocean. Of course, the water level here changes by the minute due to the movement of the tides, and as the tide goes up and down, the water level in the hole moves, too. Just as with this hole, the level of the water table is affected by other environmental conditions.

In a way, this hole is like a dug well used to access ground water, albeit saline in this case. But, if this was freshwater, people could grab a bucket an supply themselves with the water they need to live their daily lives. You know that at the beach if you took a bucket and tried to empty this hole, it would refill immediately because the sand is so permeable that water flows easily through it, meaning our "well" is very "high-yielding" (too bad the water is saline). To access freshwater, people have to drill wells deep enough to tap into an aquifer. The well might have to be dozens or thousands of feet deep. But the concept is the same as our well at the beach—access the water in the saturated zone where the voids in the rock are full of water.

Pumping can affect the level of the water table

In an aquifer, the soil and rock is saturated with water. If the aquifer is shallow enough and permeable enough to allow water to move through it at a rapid-enough rate, then people can drill wells into it and withdraw water. The level of the water table can naturally change over time due to changes in weather cycles and precipitation patterns, streamflow and geologic changes, and even human-induced changes, such as the increase in impervious surfaces, such as roads and paved areas, on the landscape.

The pumping of wells can have a great deal of influence on water levels below ground, especially in the vicinity of the well, as this diagram shows. If water is withdrawn from the ground at a faster rate that it is replenished by precipitation infiltration and seepage from streams, then the water table can become lower, resulting in a "cone of depression" around the well. Depending on geologic and hydrologic conditions of the aquifer, the impact on the level of the water table can be short-lived or last for decades, and the water level can fall a small amount or many hundreds of feet. Excessive pumping can lower the water table so much that the wells no longer supply water—they can "go dry."

Ground water and global water distribution

Ground water occurs only close to the Earth's surface. There must be space between the rock particles for ground water to occur, and the Earth's material becomes denser with more depth. Essentially, the weight of the rocks above condense the rocks below and squeeze out the open pore spaces deeper in the Earth. That is why ground water can only be found within a few miles of the Earth's surface.

As these charts show, even though the amount of water locked up in ground water is a small percentage of all of Earth's water, it represents a large percentage of total freshwater on Earth. The pie chart shows that about 1.7 percent of all of Earth's water is ground water and about 30.1 percent of freshwater on Earth occurs as ground water. As the bar chart shows, about 5,614,000 cubic miles (mi3), or 23,400,000 cubic kilometers (km3), of ground water exist on Earth. About 54 percent is saline, with the remaining 2,526,000 mi3 (10,530,000 km3) , about 46 percent, being freshwater.

Water in aquifers below the oceans is generally saline, while the water below the land surfaces (where freshwater, which fell as precipitation, infiltrates into the ground) is generally freshwater. There is a stable transition zone that separates saline water and freshwater below ground. It is fortunate for us that the relatively shallow aquifers that people tap with wells contain freshwater, since if we tried to irrigate corn fields with saline water I suspect the stalks would refuse to grow.

India: Water levels in reservoirs at 10-year low

2009-06-29T04:53:00.000-07:00

In what promises to be a threat to the Kharif crop, water level in most of the reservoirs in India continue to stay below the ten-year average. While the weatherman has promised rains in the north in the coming weeks, pressure on state governments continued to build to look at contingency plans.

In the northwest, where the IMD has warned that monsoon may be the worst (81% of normal long-term average), the Bhakra Nangal dam recorded just 9% of the capacity of the full reservoir limit compared to 44% in the previous year and 25% recorded as the 10-year average. While the threat of hydropower generation being hit also remained a concern, the falling reservoir levels are bound to give a headache to governments in states like Punjab and Haryana where the dependence on irrigation network for agriculture is very high.

The Tehri dam, which is also the source for 300 cusecs water to the Sonia Vihar plant in Delhi, has seen water levels dipping to an all-time low at just 1% of its total capacity and one-eighth of the 10-year average. Data released by Central Water Commission showed the effects of monsoon failure in June even in the Deccan plateau with water in the Nagarjunasagar dam reservoir, meant to irrigate a whopping 895,000 hectares, at just half the 10-year average.

Water and agriculture officials from states had attended meetings in Delhi over the last couple of days where they apprised the Centre of the situation at the field level. The Cabinet has also constituted a committee of secretaries headed by the cabinet secretary to oversee the food, agriculture and water situation.

The government had claimed on Thursday that the situation was still manageable with the weatherman maintaining that monsoon was picking up thrust and July-August could see decent rains for most areas that would compensate for the dry June. Delhi is expected to get its first monsoon rains in the first week of July. Farmers in the food bowl of Punjab and Haryana would be hoping for the reservoirs to fill up before paddy sowing begins in right earnest.

No Waste of Time No Water to Waste

2009-06-23T21:20:00.000-07:00

San Diego will be in a Level 2 Drought Alert. Level 2 includes many mandatory water restrictions. In addition, all voluntary Level 1 conservation practices become mandatory. The Level 2 restrictions include:

Landscape irrigation is limited to no more than three assigned days per week from June 1- Oct. 31. Those days are:

Homes with odd-numbered addresses can water: Sunday, Tuesday & Thursday
Homes with even-numbered addresses can water: Saturday, Monday & Wednesday
Apartments, Condos and Businesses can water: Monday, Wednesday & Friday

* On your watering day, you may only water before 10 a.m. or after 6 p.m.

* Landscape irrigation using sprinklers is limited to no more than ten minutes maximum per watering station per assigned day (does not apply to drip, micro-irrigation, stream rotor, rotary heads, hose end sprinklers with timers or valves operated by a weather-based irrigation controller).

* Trees and shrubs not irrigated by a landscape irrigation system may be watered no more than three assigned days per week by using a hand-held container, hand-held hose with positive shut-off nozzle, or low-volume soaker hose.

* Irrigation of nursery and commercial growers' products is permitted in the hours between 6 p.m. and 10 a.m. or at any time when using a hand-held hose with a positive shut-off nozzle, hand-held container, or drip, micro-irrigation.

* Irrigation of nursery propagation beds is permitted at any time.

* Vehicle washing is permitted only in the hours between 6 p.m. and 10 a.m. with a hand-held container or a hand-held hose with a positive shut-off nozzle for quick rinses, or at any time on the immediate premises of a commercial car wash. Vehicle washing required for public health and safety is exempt.

* Water use by commercial car washes which do not use partially re-circulated water will be reduced in volume by an amount determined by the City Council.

* All leaks must be stopped or repaired upon discovery or within 72 hours of notification by the City of San Diego.

* Bird baths, koi ponds and any ornamental water feature using a re-circulating pump and which does not shoot water into the air are allowed under Level 2. Water fountains which discharge into the air a jet or stream of water are banned under Level 2 restrictions. However, these fountains may be operated for maintenance purposes. Any water feature that does not re-circulate water is banned.

* Use of recycled or non-potable water is required for construction purposes when available.

* Water use from fire hydrants is limited to fire fighting, City meter installation as part of the Fire Hydrant Meter Program, and for public health and safety reasons.

* Construction operations will not use water obtained by a fire hydrant meter for uses other than normal construction activity.

In addition to these Level 2 requirements, all Level 1 voluntary restrictions are now mandatory. These include:

* City of San Diego water customers must prohibit excessive irrigation and must immediately correct leaks in their private water systems. The City's regulations now state that customers "shall not allow water to leave their property due to drainage onto adjacent properties or public or private roadways or streets or gutters due to excessive irrigation and/or uncorrected leaks."

* Customers cannot use a running hose to wash down sidewalks, driveways, parking areas, tennis courts, patios or other paved areas, except to alleviate immediate safety or sanitation hazards, unless that hose is connected to a water efficient device such as a commercial water broom.

* Overfilling of swimming pools and spas is strictly prohibited.

* Vehicles may only be washed at a commercial car wash or by using a hose with an automatic shutoff nozzle or with a hand-held water container.

* The City will not provide new water service connections for customers using single pass-through cooling systems.

* All new conveyer car wash and commercial laundry systems connections will be required to employ a recirculation water system.

* Restaurants and other food establishments shall only serve and refill water for patrons upon request.

* Guests in hotels, motels, and other commercial lodging establishments will be provided the option of not laundering towels and linens daily.

Debate rages over Moon Water

2009-06-16T05:37:00.000-07:00

There have been raging debates over the years as to whether there is frozen water on the moon or not. Soon two NASA spacecraft, a lunar spycraft and a kamikaze probe, will help answer the question by peering into the permanent darkness of craters at the moon's south pole.

The new moon probes, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter and the LCROSS impactor, are set to blast off this week on NASA's first mission to the moon in more than a decade. Any ice they discover could not only be used to quench an astronaut's thirst, but also to help fuel rockets for adventures beyond the moon.

All moon rocks collected so far suggest that its surface is bone dry, with any water that might come from impacting comets baked off by the sun, except perhaps for a few water molecules trapped in volcanic glass beads.

Still, there are deep craters at the moon's poles that have received no sunlight for 2 billion years or more, and in the cold of these permanent shadows — minus 328 degrees F (minus 200 degrees C) — researchers have suggested ice might have survived, explained Anthony Colaprete, principal investigator on NASA's LCROSS, short for the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite.

NASA moved the launch the two moon probes from Wednesday to no earlier than Thursday to allow the shuttle Endeavour to lift off on June 17. The shuttle's launch has been delayed since June 13 due to a hydrogen gas leak.

Where is it?
Controversial evidence for whether there is water on the moon began appearing in 1996 with the Clementine probe, a joint Pentagon-NASA project. Radar scans of the lunar surface reflected back the kind of signals at the south pole that one might expect of ice and other frozen compounds.

However, later studies using the Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico revealed similar reflections "even from areas exposed to sunlight, places too warm for water ice to survive," Colaprete said. This suggested the reflections that Clementine saw might have come not from water but from piles of rocks.

But in 1998, NASA's Lunar Prospector also detected hints of water, this time at both poles. Its instruments analyzed neutrons absorbed by a variety of elements on the moon's surface, including hydrogen. With this device, Lunar Prospector discovered hydrogen concentrated at the moon's poles, which scientists conjectured might have come from water molecules, each of which contains two hydrogen atoms. Researchers speculated the moon's poles could hold as much as 3 billion metric tons of ice.

The problem is that Lunar Prospector could only measure hydrogen, and not what matter the hydrogen was in. Instead of ice, the hydrogen might come from water bound up in clays, or protons from the solar wind, or the kind of carbon-laden molecules from comets that might have been part of the organic soup that life developed from on Earth, "or a mix of all those things," Colaprete said.

The upcoming LCROSS will crash two probes into the moon. Its partner probe, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, will map the moon from orbit and work with other ground and space-based assets to scan the LCROSS impacts.

By analyzing the plume, scientists hope to answer once and for all whether there is water there.
The icy cold truth

Any ice there might be on the moon could be key to the future of humanity in space. Although it could supply water for colonists to drink or grow food, more importantly, it could get split up to make hydrogen and oxygen for fuel for rockets.

"It costs about $10,000 to $15,000 per pound to launch something in the space shuttle, and there are about 8 pounds of water to a gallon, so we're talking about $100,000 to bring a gallon of water to low Earth orbit," Colaprete said. "If we can use the lunar poles as a resource, we could use them as staging bases to go elsewhere on the moon, or beyond the moon, or beyond Mars or Europa or elsewhere we'd want to go. You wouldn't have to bring up millions of gallons of fuel, you could produce it on the moon."

In addition, lunar ice might have survived untouched for billions of years, so it could "serve as a fantastic time capsule into the past," Colaprete said. "This is ice that could date back just as the Earth and moon and inner solar system as a whole were evolving, what kind of organic molecules might have been delivered to Earth. What hits the moon also hits the Earth."

If there is ice there, LCROSS could also show what form it is in — whether it is smoothly spread out in small grains across the crater, or in chunky patches. This could make a difference in how the ice is mined — whether astronauts simply scoop it up anywhere or have to go hunting for patches.

Article Source: http://www.msnbc.msn.com

Going Green: Drinking Water Purity

2009-06-15T03:51:00.000-07:00

Safe drinking water is a high priority and for most of us our water comes through a filtration system but the city of Syracuse taps Skaneateles Lake and it's so pure no filtration system is needed.

"So that requires extremely high water quality and that requires a lot of vigilance to make sure that, that water quality is maintained. Building a treatment plant for filtration would be very, very expensive." Dr. Russell Briggs with SUNY Environmental Science and Forestry.

Dr. Briggs is leading a study of the Skaneateles Lake watershed. It's a mix of mostly forest and agricultural land and the risk, he says, is from the agricultural land.

"Of course, forest land is the primary source of the purest water and agricultural practices have a potential to degrade water quality from fertilization and runoff and a variety of things," Briggs said.

Which means the water quality is good because farmers are using best management practices such as keeping contaminated water out of nearby streams, treating contaminated water before releasing it, and using vegetation like shrub willows to filter the water before it reaches the lake.

The lessons and techniques we've learned protecting the Skaneateles Lake watershed can be replicated around New York State using nature instead of expensive water treatment plants to produce pure water.

Storm Water, Vehicle and Garage

2009-05-29T03:00:00.000-07:00

As stormwater flows over driveways, lawns, and sidewalks, it picks up debris, chemicals, dirt, and other pollutants. Stormwater can flow into a storm sewer system or directly to a lake, stream, river, wetland, or coastal water. Anything that nters a storm sewer system is discharged untreated into the waterbodies we use for swimming, fishing, and providing drinking water. Polluted runoff is the nation’s greatest threat to clean water. By practicing healthy household habits, homeowners can keep common pollutants like pesticides, pet waste, grass clippings, and automotive fluids off the ground and out of stormwater. Adopt these healthy household habits and help protect lakes, streams, rivers, wetlands, and coastal waters. Remember to share the habits with your neighbors!

Healthy Household Habits for Clean Water

Vehicle and Garage

• Use a commercial car wash or wash your car on a lawn or other unpaved surface to minimize the amount of dirty, soapy water flowing into the storm drain and eventually into your local waterbody.
• Check your car, boat, motorcycle, and other machinery and equipment for leaks and spills. Make repairs as soon as possible. Clean up spilled fluids with an absorbent material like kitty litter or sand, and don’t rinse the spills into a nearby storm drain. Remember to properly dispose of the absorbent material.
• Recycle used oil and other automotive fluids at participating service stations. Don’t dump these chemicals down the storm drain or dispose of them in
your trash.

Lawn and Garden

• Use pesticides and fertilizers sparingly. When use is necessary, use these chemicals in the recommended amounts. Avoid application if the forecast calls for rain; otherwise, chemicals will be washed into your local stream.
• Select native plants and grasses that are drought- and pest resistant. Native plants require less water, fertilizer, and pesticides.
• Sweep up yard debris, rather than hosing down areas. Compost or recycle yard
waste when possible.
• Don’t over water your lawn. Water during the cool times of the day, and don’t let water run off into the storm drain.
• Cover piles of dirt and mulch being used in landscaping projects to prevent these pollutants from blowing or washing off your yard and into local water bodies. Vegetate bare spots in your yard to prevent soil erosion.

Home Repair and Improvement

• Before beginning an outdoor project, locate the nearest storm drains and protect them from debris and other materials.
• Sweep up and properly dispose of construction debris such as concrete and mortar.
• Use hazardous substances like paints, solvents, and cleaners in the smallest amounts possible, and follow the directions on the label. Clean up spills immediately, and dispose of the waste safely. Store substances properly to avoid leaks and spills.
• Purchase and use nontoxic, biodegradable, recycled, and recyclable products whenever possible.
• Clean paint brushes in a sink, not outdoors. Filter and reuse paint thinner when using oil-based paints. Properly dispose of excess paints through a household
hazardous waste collection program, or donate unused paint to local organizations.
• Reduce the amount of paved area and increase the amount of vegetated area in your yard. Use native plants in your landscaping to reduce the need for watering during dry periods. Consider directing downspouts away from paved surfaces onto lawns and other measures to increase infiltration and reduce polluted runoff.

Expensive Heat Pump Water Heaters

2009-05-27T02:14:00.000-07:00

1 Heat pump

2 Temperature and pressure relief valve

3 Hot water outlet (to taps)

4 Back-up electric resistance heating element

5 Cold water inlet

6 Compressor

7 Refrigerant lines

8 Evaporator

9 Hot water storage tank

10 Heat exchanger

11 Drain pan

ENERGY SOURCE	ELECTRICITY
MINIMUM EFFICIENCY RECOMMENDED	2.0 EF
MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY AVAILABLE	2.5 EF
EXPECTED LIFE	11 years
ARROXIMATE COST TO INSTALL	$1,000-$1,500

Heat pump water heaters move heat from the surrounding air into the water. The heat pump is backed up by electric heating elements in the water tank for when demand outruns supply. Heat pump water heaters may be purchased as integral units with their own storage tanks (called one-piece systems), or they may be added on to electric-resistance water heaters. Heat pump water heaters are expensive, but they are a good alternative if electricity is your only available source of energy. They can save 25% to 45% of the cost of heating water with an electric-resistance heater.

Special Features

In a heat pump, energy is used not to generate heat but to move it, so a heat pump can have an Energy Factor above one. In fact, most heat pumps have EFs between two and three.

When heat pump water heaters move heat into the water, they cool and dehumidify the air surrounding the unit. This produces the equivalent of about 1/2 ton of air conditioning--which is helpful if your home usually needs cooling. But when winter comes, that cool air will put more demand on your heating system.

Precautions

Heat pump systems should be designed and installed by experts. One-piece systems require less design work and are simpler to install. Choose your contractor carefully.

Heat pump water heaters should be installed inside the house because they can freeze up if the temperature drops below 45°F. And they should be in an open, unconfined space, since they need lots of surrounding air from which to extract heat.

Heat pumps require more maintenance visits than most other systems. Depending on your water quality, the heat exchanger coils may need to be cleaned as often as every three months. This is not something most homeowners can do on their own.

Sizing

Heat pumps are slow. Most electric-resistance heaters can heat 20 gallons per hour. Heat pumps usually manage only 10 to 15. If demand exceeds supply, the inefficient backup heaters go on. While a larger storage tank can help you to avoid running out of hot water, it will lead to increased standby loss.

Like other storage units, heat pump water heaters are sized by first-hour rating. However, your contractor will also need to size the backup electric coil. Make sure the heat pump is sized to minimize use of the backup system.

Water Evapotranspiration and Transpiration

2009-05-26T06:03:00.001-07:00

What is evapotranspiration?

If you search for the definition of evapotranspiration, you will find that it varies. In general, evapotranspiration is the sum of evaporation and transpiration. Some definitions include evaporation from surface-water bodies, even the oceans. But, since we have a Web page just about evaporation, our definition of evapotranspiration will not include evaporation from surface water. On this site, evapotranspiration is defined as the water lost to the atmosphere from the ground surface, evaporation from the capillary fringe of the groundwater table, and the transpiration of groundwater by plants whose roots tap the capillary fringe of the groundwater table. The banner at the top of this page offers an even more simple definition.

The transpiration aspect of evapotranspiration is essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves. Studies have revealed that transpiration accounts for about 10 percent of the the moisture in the atmosphere, with oceans, seas, and other bodies of water (lakes, rivers, streams) providing nearly 90 percent, and a tiny amount coming from sublimation (ice changing into water vapor without first becoming liquid).

Transpiration: The release of water from plant leaves

Just as you release water vapor when you breath, plants do, too – although the term "transpire" is more appropriate than "breath." This picture shows water vapor transpired from plant leaves after a plastic bag has been tied around the stem for about an hour. If the bag had been wrapped around the soil below it, too, then even more water vapor would have been released, as water also evaporates from the soil.

Plants put down roots into the soil to draw water and nutrients up into the stems and leaves. Some of this water is returned to the air by transpiration. Transpiration rates vary widely depending on weather conditions, such as temperature, humidity, sunlight availability and intensity, precipitation, soil type and saturation, wind, and land slope. During dry periods, transpiration can contribute to the loss of moisture in the upper soil zone, which can have an effect on vegetation and food-crop fields.
How much water do plants transpire?

Plant transpiration is pretty much an invisible proces – since the water is evaporating from the leaf surfaces, you don't just go out and see the leaves "breathing". Just because you can't see the water doesn't mean it is not being put into the air, though. One way to visualize transpiration is to put a plastic bag around some plant leaves. As this picture shows, transpired water will condense on the inside of the bag. During a growing season, a leaf will transpire many times more water than its own weight. An acre of corn gives off about 3,000-4,000 gallons (11,400-15,100 liters) of water each day, and a large oak tree can transpire 40,000 gallons (151,000 liters) per year.

Atmospheric factors affecting transpiration

The amount of water that plants transpire varies greatly geographically and over time. There are a number of factors that determine transpiration rates:

Temperature:Transpiration rates go up as the temperature goes up, especially during the growing season, when the air is warmer due to stronger sunlight and warmer air masses. Higher temperatures cause the plant cells which control the openings (stoma) where water is released to the atmosphere to open, whereas colder temperatures cause the openings to close.
Relative humidity: As the relative humidity of the air surrounding the plant rises the transpiration rate falls. It is easier for water to evaporate into dryer air than into more saturated air.
Wind and air movement: Increased movement of the air around a plant will result in a higher transpiration rate. This is somewhat related to the relative humidity of the air, in that as water transpires from a leaf, the water saturates the air surrounding the leaf. If there is no wind, the air around the leaf may not move very much, raising the humidity of the air around the leaf. Wind will move the air around, with the result that the more saturated air close to the leaf is replaced by drier air.
Soil-moisture availability: When moisture is lacking, plants can begin to senesce (premature ageing, which can result in leaf loss) and transpire less water.
Type of plant: Plants transpire water at different rates. Some plants which grow in arid regions, such as cacti and succulents, conserve precious water by transpiring less water than other plants.

Transpiration and ground water

Diagram showing how the water table can dip where plant roots access it during the growing season. In many places, the top layer of the soil where plant roots are located is above the water table and thus is often wet to some extent, but is not totally saturated, as is soil below the water table. The soil above the water table gets wet when it rains as water infiltrates into it from the surface, But, it will dry out without additional precipitation. Since the water table is usually below the depth of the plant roots, the plants are dependent on water supplied by precipitation. As this diagram shows, in places where the water table is near the land surface, such as next to lakes and oceans, plant roots can penetrate into the saturated zone below the water table, allowing the plants to transpire water directly from the ground-water system. Here, transpiration of ground water commonly results in a drawdown of the water table much like the effect of a pumped well (cone of depression—the dotted line surrounding the plant roots in the diagram).

History of Water Shortage

2009-05-25T01:37:00.000-07:00

Our subtropic region has two seasons: the rainy and the dry season, which can bring short-term excesses and shortages: in a natural cycle of flood and drought. We also have one of the nation's fastest growing populations, which increases demand and can decrease supplies of water storing lands. Seasonal shortfalls of rain can stress both ground and surface waters, which can require the declaration of a water shortage, and mandatory limits on irrigation.

Our dry season usually starts in November, and continues through May. Temperatures fall and humidity decreases, but not radically. From spring through winter, millions of seasonal visitors visit the region, further increasing the demand for water.

Changing Our Landscape

Our region was, less than 100 years ago, a wetlands studded peninsula which was wet for most of the year. The early settlers clustered near the thin strip of higher ground created by coastal ridges, which, like the sides of a bowl kept water stored in inaccessible inland swamps.

In today's far more densely developed region, the rainy season and the dry season can quickly bring flooding and drought -- because there are few places quite as flat, or as blessed with rainfall (an average 53 inches a year) and population growth (about 7.5 million residents and millions of seasonal visitors). More than 90% of us get our drinking water from groundwater sources, which are primarily replenished by rainfall. Treating sea water or surface water for consumption is far more expensive, and therefore, rarer than most believe.

Managing Emergencies

When water levels are too high, or too low, SFWMD Emergency Management Operations monitors and optimizes regional water management.

Water Storage Information in the Atmosphere

2009-05-22T02:17:00.000-07:00

The atmosphere is full of water

The water cycle is all about storing water and moving water on, in, and above the Earth. Although the atmosphere may not be a great storehouse of water, it is the superhighway used to move water around the globe. Evaporation and transpiration change liquid water into vapor, which ascends into the atmosphere due to rising air currents. Cooler temperatures aloft allow the vapor to condense into clouds and strong winds move the clouds around the world until the water falls as precipitation to replenish the earthbound parts of the water cycle. About 90 percent of water in the atmosphere is produced by evaporation from water bodies, while the other 10 percent comes from transpiration from plants.

There is always water in the atmosphere. Clouds are, of course, the most visible manifestation of atmospheric water, but even clear air contains water—water in particles that are too small to be seen. One estimate of the volume of water in the atmosphere at any one time is about 3,100 cubic miles (mi3) or 12,900 cubic kilometers (km3). That may sound like a lot, but it is only about 0.001 percent of the total Earth's water volume of about 332,500,000 mi3 (1,385,000,000 km3), as shown in the table below. If all of the water in the atmosphere rained down at once, it would only cover the ground to a depth of 2.5 centimeters, about 1 inch.
How much does a cloud weigh?

Image of a cloud being weighed on a kitchen scale. Do you think clouds have any weight? How can they, if they are floating in the air like a balloon filled with helium? If you tie a helium balloon to a kitchen scale it won't register any weight, so why should a cloud? To answer this question, let me ask if you think air has any weight—that is really the important question. If you know what air pressure and a barometer are, then you know that air does have weight. At sea level, the weight (pressure) of air is about 14 ½ pounds per square inch (1 kilogram per square centimeter).

Since air has weight it must also have density, which is the weight for a chosen volume, such as a cubic inch or cubic meter. If clouds are made up of particles, then they must have weight and density. The key to why clouds float is that the density of the same volume of cloud material is less than the density of the same amount of dry air. Just as oil floats on water because it is less dense, clouds float on air because the moist air in clouds is less dense than dry air.

We still need to answer the question of how much a cloud weighs. For an example, let's use your basic "everyday" cloud—the cumulus cloud with a volume of about 1 cubic kilometer (km) located about 2 km above the ground. In other words, it is a cube about 1 km on each side. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) provides some estimates of air and cloud density and weight. NOAA found that dry air has a density of about 1.007 kilograms/cubic meter (kg/m3) and the density of the actual cloud droplets is about 1.003 kg/m3. In the final calculations, the 1 km3 cumulus cloud weighs a whopping 2.211 billion pounds (1.003 billion kilograms)! However, remember that air also has mass, so the cloud floats because the weight of the same volume of dry air is even more, about 2.220 billion pounds (1.007 billion kilograms). So, it is the lesser density of the cloud that allows it to float on the dryer and more-dense air.

Global distribution of atmospheric water


Water source	Water volume, in cubic miles	Water volume, in cubic kilometers	Percent of total freshwater	Percent of total water
Atmosphere	3,094	12,900	0.04%	0.001%
Total global fresh water	8,404,000	35,030,000	100%	2.5%
Total global water	332,500,000	1,386,000,000	--	100%

Acid Rain Causes and Effects

2009-05-17T23:07:00.000-07:00

What is Acid Rain?

Acid rain is rain that has been made acidic by certain pollutants in the air. Acid rain is a type of acid deposition, which can appear in many forms. Wet deposition is rain, sleet, snow, or fog that has become more acidic than normal. Dry deposition is another form of acid deposition, and this is when gases and dust particles become acidic. Both wet and dry deposition can be carried by the wind, sometimes for very long distances. Acid deposition in wet and dry forms falls on buildings, cars, and trees and can make lakes acidic. Acid deposition in dry form can be inhaled by people and can cause health problems in some people.

What is acidity?

Acidic and basic are two ways that we describe chemical compounds. Acidity is measured using a pH scale. A pH scale runs from zero (the most acidic) to 14 (the most basic or alkaline). A substance that is neither basic or acidic is called "neutral", and this has a pH of 7.

What Causes Acid Rain?

Sources of Acid Rain

Acid rain is caused by a chemical reaction that begins when compounds like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the air. These substances can rise very high into the atmosphere, where they mix and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form more acidic pollutants, known as acid rain. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides dissolve very easily in water and can be carried very far by the wind. As a result, the two compounds can travel long distances where they become part of the rain, sleet, snow, and fog that we experience on certain days.

Human activities are the main cause of acid rain. Over the past few decades, humans have released so many different chemicals into the air that they have changed the mix of gases in the atmosphere. Power plants release the majority of sulfur dioxide and much of the nitrogen oxides when they burn fossil fuels, such as coal, to produce electricity. In addition, the exhaust from cars, trucks, and buses releases nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide into the air. These pollutants cause acid rain.

Acid Rain is Caused by Reactions in the Environment

Nature depends on balance, and although some rain is naturally acidic, with a pH level of around 5.0, human activities have made it worse. Normal precipitation—such as rain, sleet, or snow—reacts with alkaline chemicals, or non-acidic materials, that can be found in air, soils, bedrock, lakes, and streams. These reactions usually neutralize natural acids. However, if precipitation becomes too acidic, these materials may not be able to neutralize all of the acids. Over time, these neutralizing materials can be washed away by acid rain. Damage to crops, trees, lakes, rivers, and animals can result.

What is being Done?

Now that you know why acid rain is a problem, you might be wondering what’s being done to control it. Regulations and new technologies are helping reduce acid rain.

EPA’s Acid Rain Program

Power plants generate the electricity we use every day. Unfortunately, power plants also produce large amounts of nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide—the pollutants that cause acid rain—when they burn fossil fuels, especially coal, to produce energy. Congress passed a law called the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, and this law said that EPA should start the Acid Rain Program. The program limits, or puts a cap on, the amount of sulfur dioxide that power plants can release into the air and issues allowances to the power plants to cover their sulfur dioxide emissions. It also reduces the amount of nitrogen oxides that power plants can release.

Reducing Pollution

Scientists have found different ways to reduce the amount of sulfur dioxide released from coal-burning power plants. One option is to use coal that contains less sulfur. Another option is to “wash” the coal to remove some of the sulfur. The power plant can also install equipment called scrubbers, which remove the sulfur dioxide from gases leaving the smokestack. Because nitrogen oxides are created in the process of burning coal and other fossil fuels, some power plants are changing the way they burn coal.

Other Sources of Energy

A great way to reduce acid rain is to produce energy without using fossil fuels. Instead, people can use renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power. Renewable energy sources help reduce acid rain because they produce much less pollution. These energy sources can be used to power machinery and produce electricity.

Cleaner Cars

Cars and trucks are major sources of the pollutants that cause acid rain. While one car alone does not produce much pollution, all the cars on the road added together create lots of pollution. Therefore, car manufacturers are required to reduce the amount of nitrogen oxides and other pollutants released by new cars. One type of technology used in cars is called a catalytic converter. This piece of equipment has been used for over 20 years to reduce the amount of nitrogen oxides released by cars. Some new cars can also use cleaner fuels, such as natural gas.

Cars that produce less pollution and are better for the environment are often labeled as low emissions vehicles. You can find out which vehicles are low emissions vehicles by looking at EPA’s Green Vehicle Guide.

What Can You Do?

Government agencies and scientists are not the only ones that can take action to stop acid rain. You can become part of the solution, too!

Understand the Problem

The first step you can take to help control acid rain is to understand the problem and its solutions. Now that you have learned about this environmental issue, you can tell others about it. By telling your classmates, parents, and teachers about what you learned on this site, you can help educate them about the problem of acid rain. You CAN make a difference!

Conserve Energy

Since energy production creates large amounts of the pollutants that cause acid rain, one important step you can take is to conserve energy. You can do this in a number of ways:

* Turn off lights, computers, televisions, video games, and other electrical equipment when you're not using them.
* Encourage your parents to buy equipment that uses less electricity, including lights, air conditioners, heaters, refrigerators, and washing machines. Such equipment might have the Energy Star label.
* Try to limit the use of air conditioning.
* Ask your parents to adjust the thermostat (the device used to control the temperature in your home) when you go on vacation.

Minimize the Miles

Driving cars and trucks also produces large amounts of nitrogen oxides, which cause acid rain. To help cut down on air pollution from cars, you can carpool or take public transportation, such as buses and trains. Also, ask your parents to walk or bike with you to a nearby store or friend’s house instead of driving.

Water Storage Treatment Process

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Follow a drop of water from the source through the treatment process. Water may be treated differently in different communities depending on the quality of the water which enters the plant. Groundwater is water located under ground and typically requires less treatment than water from lakes, rivers, and streams.

Stop at each treatment point to show where the water is along the treatment path. You may click on each treatment point on the image for a little information about that treatment point.

Place where a concentrated discharge of ground water flows at the ground surface

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What is a spring?

A spring is a water resource formed when the side of a hill, a valley bottom or other excavation intersects a flowing body of ground water at or below the local water table, below which the subsurface material is saturated with water. A spring is the result of an aquifer being filled to the point that the water overflows onto the land surface. They range in size from intermittent seeps, which flow only after much rain, to huge pools fwith a flow of hundreds of millions of liters per day.

Springs may be formed in any sort of rock, but are more prevalent in limestone and dolomite, which fracture easily and can be dissolved by rainfall that becomes weakly acidic. As the rock dissolves and fractures, spaces can form that allow water to flow. If the flow is horizontal, it can reach the land surface, resulting in a spring.

Spring water is not always clear

Water from springs usually is remarkably clear. Water from some springs, however, may be "tea-colored." This picture shows a natural spring in southwestern Colorado. Its red iron coloring and metals enrichment are caused by ground water coming in contact with naturally occurring minerals present as a result of ancient volcanic activity in the area. In Florida, many surface waters contain natural tannic acids from organic material in subsurface rocks, and the color from these streams can appear in springs. If surface water enters the aquifer near a spring, the water can move quickly through the aquifer and discharge at the spring vent. The discharge of highly colored water from springs can indicate that water is flowing quickly through large channels within the aquifer without being filtered through the limestone.

Thermal springs

Thermal springs are ordinary springs except that the water is warm and, in some places, hot, such as in the bubbling mud springs in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Many thermal springs occur in regions of recent volcanic activity and are fed by water heated by contact with hot rocks far below the surface. Even where there has been no recent volcanic action, rocks become warmer with increasing depth. In such areas water may migrate slowly to considerable depth, warming as it descends through rocks deep in the Earth. If it then reaches a large crevice that offers a path of less resistance, it may rise more quickly than it descended. Water that does not have time to cool before it emerges forms a thermal spring. The famous Warm Springs of Georgia and Hot Springs of Arkansas are of this type. And, yes, warm springs can even coexist with icebergs, as these happy Greenlanders can tell you.

Global water distribution

For a detailed explanation of where Earth's water exists, look at the chart and data table below. By now, you know that the water cycle describes the movement of Earth's water, so realize that the chart and table below represent the presence of Earth's water at a single point in time. If you check back in a thousand or million years, no doubt these numbers will be different!

Notice how of the world's total water supply of about 332.5 million cubic miles of water, over 96 percent is saline. And, of the total freshwater, over 68 percent is locked up in ice and glaciers. Another 30 percent of freshwater is in the ground. Fresh surface-water sources, such as rivers and lakes, only constitute about 22,300 cubic miles (93,100 cubic kilometers), which is about 0.0067 percent of total water. Yet, rivers and lakes are the sources of most of the water people use everyday.

One estimate of global water distribution:
Water source	Water volume, in cubic miles	Water volume, in cubic kilometers	Percent of freshwater	Percent of total water
Oceans, Seas, & Bays	321,000,000	1,338,000,000	--	96.5
Ice caps, Glaciers, & Permanent Snow	5,773,000	24,064,000	68.7	1.74
Groundwater	5,614,000	23,400,000	--	1.7
Fresh	2,526,000	10,530,000	30.1	0.76
Saline	3,088,000	12,870,000	--	0.94
Soil Moisture	3,959	16,500	0.05	0.001
Ground Ice & Permafrost	71,970	300,000	0.86	0.022
Lakes	42,320	176,400	--	0.013
Fresh	21,830	91,000	0.26	0.007
Saline	20,490	85,400	--	0.006
Atmosphere	3,095	12,900	0.04	0.001
Swamp Water	2,752	11,470	0.03	0.0008
Rivers	509	2,120	0.006	0.0002
Biological Water	269	1,120	0.003	0.0001
Total	332,500,000	1,386,000,000	-	100

Fresh Water Storage

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One part of the water cycle that is obviously essential to all life on Earth is the freshwater existing on the land surface. Just ask your neighbor, a tomato plant, a trout, or that pesky mosquito. Surface water includes the streams (of all sizes, from large rivers to small creeks), ponds, lakes, reservoirs and canals (man-made lakes and streams), and freshwater wetlands. The definition of freshwater is water containing less than 1,000 milligrams per liter of dissolved solids, most often salt.

As a part of the water cycle, Earth's surface-water bodies are generally thought of as renewable resources, although they are very dependent on other parts of the water cycle. The amount of water in our rivers and lakes is always changing due to inflows and outflows. Inflows to these water bodies will be from precipitation, overland runoff, ground-water seepage, and tributary inflows. Outflows from lakes and rivers include evaporation and discharge to ground water. Humans get into the act also, as people make great use of surface water for their needs. So, the amount and location of surface water changes over time and space, whether naturally or with human help. Certainly during the last ice age when glaciers and snowpacks covered much more land surface than today, life on Earth had to adapt to different hydrologic conditions than those which took place both before and after. And the layout of the landscape certainly was different before and after the last ice age, which influenced the topographical layout of many surface-water bodies today. Glaciers are what made the Great Lakes not only "great, " but also such a huge storehouse of freshwater.

Surface water keeps life going

Satellite picture of lights in southern Europe and North Africa at night, with the lights along the Nile Delta circled for emphasis. As this picture of the Nile Delta in Egypt shows, life can even bloom in the desert if there is a supply of surface water (or ground water) available. Water on the land surface really does sustain life, and this is as true today as it was millions of years ago. I'm sure dinosaurs held their meetings at the local watering hole 100 million years ago, just as antelopes in Africa do today. And, since ground water is supplied by the downward percolation of surface water, even aquifers are happy for water on the Earth's surface. You might think that fish living in the saline oceans aren't affected by freshwater, but, without freshwater to replenish the oceans they would eventually evaporate and become too saline for even the fish to survive.

As we said, everybody and every living thing congregates and lives where they can gain access to water, especially freshwater. Just ask the 6 billion people living on Earth! Here's a satellite picture of the Mediterranean region during night (the full picture of the Earth is available from NASA). The most obvious thing you can see is that people live near the coasts, which, of course, is where water, albeit saline, is located. But the interesting thing in this picture are the lights following the Nile River and Nile Delta in Egypt ( the circled area). In this dry part of the world, surface-water supplies are essential for human communities. And if you check the price of lakefront property in your part of the world, it probably sells for much more than other land.

Usable fresh surface water is relatively scarce

To many people, streams and lakes are the most visible part of the water cycle. Not only do they supply the human population, animals, and plants with the freshwater they need to survive, but they are great places for people to have fun. You might be surprised at how little of Earth's water supply is stored as freshwater on the land surface, as shown in the diagram and table below. Freshwater represents only about three percent of all water on Earth and freshwater lakes and swamps account for a mere 0.29 percent of the Earth's freshwater. Twenty percent of all fresh surface water is in one lake, Lake Baikal in Asia. Another twenty percent (about 5,500 cubic miles (about 23,000 cubic kilometers)) is stored in the Great Lakes. Rivers hold only about 0.006 percent of total freshwater reserves. You can see that life on Earth survives on what is essentially only a "drop in the bucket" of Earth's total water supply! People have built systems, such as large reservoirs and small water towers (like this one in South Carolina, created to blend in with the peach trees surrounding it) to store water for when they need it. These systems allow people to live in places where nature doesn't always supply enough water or where water is not available at the time of year it is needed.

**One estimate of global fresh-water distribution**
Water source	Water volume, in cubic miles	Water volume, in cubic kilometers	Percent of freshwater	Percent of total water
Lakes, swamps	24,600	102,500	0.29%	0.008%
Rivers	509	2,120	0.006%	0.0002%
Total global fresh water	8,404,000	35,030,000	100%	2.5%
Total global water	332,500,000	1,386,000,000	--	100%
Source: Gleick, P. H., 1996: Water resources. In Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather, ed. by S. H. Schneider, Oxford University Press, New York, vol. 2, pp.817-823.

Water storage in oceans: Saline Water existing in Oceans and Inland Seas

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The ocean as a storehouse of water

The water cycle sounds like it is describing how water moves above, on, and through the Earth ... and it does. But, in fact, much more water is "in storage" for long periods of time than is actually moving through the cycle. The storehouses for the vast majority of all water on Earth are the oceans. It is estimated that of the 332,500,000 cubic miles (mi3) (1,386,000,000 cubic kilometers (km3)) of the world's water supply, about 321,000,000 mi3 (1,338,000,000 km3) is stored in oceans. That is about 96.5 percent. It is also estimated that the oceans supply about 90 percent of the evaporated water that goes into the water cycle.

During colder climatic periods more ice caps and glaciers form, and enough of the global water supply accumulates as ice to lessen the amounts in other parts of the water cycle. The reverse is true during warm periods. During the last ice age glaciers covered almost one-third of Earth's land mass, with the result being that the oceans were about 400 feet (122 meters) lower than today. During the last global "warm spell," about 125,000 years ago, the seas were about 18 feet (5.5. meters) higher than they are now. About three million years ago the oceans could have been up to 165 feet (50 meters) higher.

Oceans in movement

If you have ever been seasick (we hope not), then you know how the ocean is never still. You might think that the water in the oceans moves around because of waves, which are driven by winds. But, actually, there are currents and "rivers" in the oceans that move massive amounts of water around the world. These movements have a great deal of influence on the water cycle. The Kuroshio Current, off the shores of Japan, is the largest current. It can travel between 25 and 75 miles (40 and 121 kilometers) a day, 1-3 miles (1.4-4.8 kilometers) per hour, and extends some 3,300 feet (1,000 meters) deep. The Gulf Stream is a well known stream of warm water in the Atlantic Ocean, moving water from the Gulf of Mexico across the Atlantic Ocean towards Great Britain. At a speed of 60 miles (97 kilometers) per day, the Gulf stream moves 100 times as much water as all the rivers on Earth. Coming from warm climates, the Gulf Stream moves warmer water to the North Atlantic.

Components of the Water Cycle

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What is the water cycle?

I can easily answer that—it is "me" all over! The water cycle describes the existence and movement of water on, in, and above the Earth. Earth's water is always in movement and is always changing states, from liquid to vapor to ice and back again. The water cycle has been working for billions of years and all life on Earth depends on it continuing to work; the Earth would be a pretty stale place to live without it.

Where does all the Earth’s water come from? Primordial Earth was an incandescent globe made of magma, but all magmas contain water. Water set free by magma began to cool down the Earth’s atmosphere, until it could stay on the surface as a liquid. Volcanic activity kept and still keeps introducing water in the atmosphere, thus increasing the surface- and ground-water volume of the Earth.

A quick summary of the water cycle

Here is a quick summary of the water cycle. The links in this paragraph go to the detailed Web pages in our Web site for each topic. A shorter summary of each topic can be found further down in this page, though.

The water cycle has no starting point. But, we'll begin in the oceans, since that is where most of Earth's water exists. The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in the oceans. Some of it evaporates as vapor into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor. Rising air currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere, along with water from evapotranspiration, which is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. The vapor rises into the air where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents move clouds around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Snowpacks in warmer climates often thaw and melt when spring arrives, and the melted water flows overland as snowmelt. Most precipitation falls back into the oceans or onto land, where, due to gravity, the precipitation flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff, and ground-water seepage, accumulate and are stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, though. Much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers (saturated subsurface rock), which store huge amounts of freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as ground-water discharge, and some ground water finds openings in the land surface and emerges as freshwater springs. Over time, though, all of this water keeps moving, some to reenter the ocean, where the water cycle "ends" ... oops - I mean, where it "begins."

Components of the water cycle

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has identified 16 components of the water cycle:

Water storage in oceans

Evaporation

Sublimation

Evapotranspiration

Water in the atmosphere

Condensation

Precipitation

Water storage in ice and snow

Snowmelt runoff to streams

Ground-water discharge

Springs

Properties of Water

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Before we begin looking at the properties of water, maybe you'd like to take our True/False quiz about water properties. Some of the answers may surprise you.

What are the physical and chemical properties of water that make it so unique and necessary for living things? When you look at water, taste and smell it - well, what could be more boring? Pure water is virtually colorless and has no taste or smell. But the hidden qualities of water make it a most interesting subject.

Water's Chemical Properties

You probably know water's chemical description is H2O. As the diagram to the left shows, that is one atom of oxygen bound to two atoms of hydrogen. The hydrogen atoms are "attached" to one side of the oxygen atom, resulting in a water molecule having a positive charge on the side where the hydrogen atoms are and a negative charge on the other side, where the oxygen atom is. Since opposite electrical charges attract, water molecules tend to attract each other, making water kind of "sticky." As the right-side diagram shows, the side with the hydrogen atoms (positive charge) attracts the oxygen side (negative charge) of a different water molecule. (If the water molecule here looks familiar, remember that everyone's favorite mouse is mostly water, too).

All these water molecules attracting each other mean they tend to clump together. This is why water drops are, in fact, drops! If it wasn't for some of Earth's forces, such as gravity, a drop of water would be ball shaped -- a perfect sphere. Even if it doesn't form a perfect sphere on Earth, we should be happy water is sticky.

Water is called the "universal solvent" because it dissolves more substances than any other liquid. This means that wherever water goes, either through the ground or through our bodies, it takes along valuable chemicals, minerals, and nutrients.
Pure water has a neutral pH of 7, which is neither acidic nor basic.

Diagram about pH

Water's Physical Properties

Water is unique in that it is the only natural substance that is found in all three states -- liquid, solid (ice), and gas (steam) -- at the temperatures normally found on Earth. Earth's water is constantly interacting, changing, and in movement.
Water freezes at 32o Fahrenheit (F) and boils at 212o F (at sea level, but 186.4° at 14,000 feet). In fact, water's freezing and boiling points are the baseline with which temperature is measured: 0o on the Celsius scale is water's freezing point, and 100o is water's boiling point. Water is unusual in that the solid form, ice, is less dense than the liquid form, which is why ice floats.
Water has a high specific heat index. This means that water can absorb a lot of heat before it begins to get hot. This is why water is valuable to industries and in your car's radiator as a coolant. The high specific heat index of water also helps regulate the rate at which air changes temperature, which is why the temperature change between seasons is gradual rather than sudden, especially near the oceans.
Water has a very high surface tension. In other words, water is sticky and elastic, and tends to clump together in drops rather than spread out in a thin film. Surface tension is responsible for capillary action, which allows water (and its dissolved substances) to move through the roots of plants and through the tiny blood vessels in our bodies.
Here's a quick rundown of some of water's properties:

o Weight: 62.416 pounds per cubic foot at 32°F
o Weight: 61.998 pounds per cubic foot at 100°F
o Weight: 8.33 pounds/gallon, 0.036 pounds/cubic inch
o Density: 1 gram per cubic centimeter (cc) at 39.2°F, 0.95865 gram per cc at 212°F

Here are some water volume comparisons:
1 gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 128 fluid ounces = 231 cubic inches
1 liter = 0.2642 gallons = 1.0568 quart = 61.02 cubic inches
1 million gallons = 3.069 acre-feet = 133,685.64 cubic feet

Who is Responsible Drinking Water Quality?

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The Safe Drinking Water Act gives the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the responsibility The Safe Drinking Water Act gives the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the responsibility for setting national drinking water standards that protect the health of the 250 million people who get their water from public water systems. Other people get their water from private wells which are not subject to Federal Regulations. Since 1974, EPA has set national safety standards for over 80 contaminants that may occur in drinking water.

While EPA and state governments set and enforce standards, local governments and private water suppliers have direct responsibility for the quality of the water that flows to your tap. Water systems test and treat their water, maintain the distribution systems that deliver water to consumers, and report on their water quality to the state. States and EPA provide technical assistance to water suppliers and can take legal action against systems that fail to provide water that meets state and EPA standards.

For more information

Read Water on Tap: What You Need To Know
Find out what's going on in your state. Find its drinking water web site through EPA's local drinking water information web site . This site will also help you find information about your drinking water supplier.
EPA's rules don't apply to water from private wells, but EPA does have some recommendations for people who get water from private wells.
To learn how EPA sets limits on drinking water contaminants, read Setting Standards for Safe Drinking Water .
Read the complete Safe Drinking Water Act or a summary of the 1996 Amendments to the Act..
Each state writes an annual report on its systems' compliance with drinking water rules. EPA compiles and analyzes these reports in its Compliance Report.

The Water Cycle Info

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Introduction

As seen from space, one of the most unique features of our home planet is the water, in both liquid and frozen forms, that covers approximately 75% of the Earth's surface. Believed to have initially arrived on the surface through the emissions of ancient volcanoes, geologic evidence suggests that large amounts of water have likely flowed on Earth for the past 3.8 billion years, most of its existence. As a vital substance that sets the Earth apart from the rest of the planets in our solar system, water is a necessary ingredient for the development and nourishment of life.

Water, Water, Everywhere

Water is everywhere on Earth and is the only known substance that can naturally exist as a gas, liquid, and solid within the relatively small range of air temperatures and pressures found at the Earth's surface. In all, the Earth's water content is about 1.39 billion cubic kilometers (331 million cubic miles) and the vast bulk of it, about 96.5%, is in the global oceans. Approximately 1.7% is stored in the polar icecaps, glaciers, and permanent snow, and another 1.7% is stored in groundwater, lakes, rivers, streams, and soil. Finally, a thousandth of 1% exists as water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere.

One estimate of global water distribution:

	Volume (1000 km³)	Percent of Total Water	Percent of Fresh Water
Oceans, Seas, & Bays	1,338,000	96.5
Ice caps, Glaciers, & Permanent Snow	24,064	1.74	68.7
Groundwater	23,400	1.7	-
Fresh	(10,530)	(0.76)	30.1
Saline	(12,870)	(0.94)	-
Soil Moisture	16.5	0.001	0.05
Ground Ice & Permafrost	300	0.022	0.86
Lakes	176.4	0.013
Fresh	(91.0)	(0.007)	.26
Saline	(85.4)	(0.006)	-
Atmosphere	12.9	0.001	0.04
Swamp Water	11.47	0.0008	0.03
Rivers	2.12	0.0002	0.006
Biological Water	1.12	0.0001	0.003
Total	1,385,984	100.0

Source: Gleick, P. H., 1996: Water resources. In Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather, ed. by S. H. Schneider, Oxford University Press, New York, vol. 2, pp.817-823.

Estimates of groundwater are particularly difficult and vary widely amongst sources, with the value in this table being near the high end of the range. Using the values in this table, groundwater constitutes approximately 30% of fresh water, whereas ice (including ice caps, glaciers, permanent snow, ground ice, and permafrost) constitute approximately 70% of fresh water. With other estimates, groundwater is sometimes listed as 22% and ice as 78% of fresh water.

Solar Water Heating System

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Like solar collectors, solar water heaters can be either passive or active. Passive systems have no moving parts, no external energy source except the sun, and rely on the basic principle of physics that hot water rises and cold water falls. Active systems utilize a mechanical circulating pump and some type of temperature control.

A simple passive solar water heater consists of a water tank that has been painted black and placed in a well-insulated box that has glass or plastic on one side. The sun’s rays penetrate the glass and heat the tank. This type of system is often called a “bread box” or batch heater. It allows cold water to flow in at the bottom and hot water to flow out from the top. The system operates on water pressure from the water supply. Water from the system is then transferred to a conventional gas or electric water heater. A thermostat on the water heater determines whether the water is hot enough to be used. If it is not, the conventional water heater adds the required heat.

Water Quality Information

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What is in the water?

Is it safe for drinking? Can fish and other aquatic life thrive in streams and lakes that are affected by human activities? What is the water quality? To answer these questions, it is helpful to understand what "water quality" means, how it is determined, and the natural processes and human activities that affect water quality.

What do we mean by "water quality"?

Water quality can be thought of as a measure of the suitability of water for a particular use based on selected physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. To determine water quality, scientists first measure and analyze characteristics of the water such as temperature, dissolved mineral content, and number of bacteria. Selected characteristics are then compared to numeric standards and guidelines to decide if the water is suitable for a particular use.

How is water quality measured?

Some aspects of water quality can be determined right in the stream or at the well. These include temperature, acidity (pH), dissolved oxygen, and electrical conductance (an indirect indicator of dissolved minerals in the water). Analyses of individual chemicals generally are done at a laboratory.

Why do we have water-quality standards and guidelines?

Standards and guidelines are established to protect water for designated uses such as drinking, recreation, agricultural irrigation, or protection and maintenance of aquatic life. Standards for drinking-water quality ensure that public drinking-water supplies are as safe as possible. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the States are responsible for establishing the standards for constituents in water that have been shown to pose a risk to human health. Other standards protect aquatic life, including fish, and fish-eating wildlife such as birds.

How do natural processes affect water quality?

Natural water quality varies from place to place, with the seasons, with climate, and with the types of soils and rocks through which water moves. When water from rain or snow moves over the land and through the ground, the water may dissolve minerals in rocks and soil, percolate through organic material such as roots and leaves, and react with algae, bacteria, and other microscopic organisms. Water may also carry plant debris and sand, silt, and clay to rivers and streams making the water appear “muddy” or turbid. When water evaporates from lakes and streams, dissolved minerals are more concentrated in the water that remains. Each of these natural processes changes the water quality and potentially the water use.

What is naturally in the water?

The most common dissolved substances in water are minerals or salts that, as a group, are referred to as dissolved solids. Dissolved solids include common constituents such as calcium, sodium, bicarbonate, and chloride; plant nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus; and trace elements such as selenium, chromium, and arsenic.

In general, the common constituents are not considered harmful to human health, although some constituents can affect the taste, smell, or clarity of water. Plant nutrients and trace elements in water can be harmful to human health and aquatic life if they exceed standards or guidelines.

Dissolved gases such as oxygen and radon are common in natural waters. Adequate oxygen levels in water are a necessity for fish and other aquatic life. Radon gas can be a threat to human health when it exceeds drinking-water standards.

How do human activities affect water quality?

Urban and industrial development, farming, mining, combustion of fossil fuels, stream-channel alteration, animal-feeding operations, and other human activities can change the quality of natural waters. As an example of the effects of human activities on water quality, consider nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers that are applied to crops and lawns. These plant nutrients can be dissolved easily in rainwater or snowmelt runoff. Excess nutrients carried to streams and lakes encourage abundant growth of algae, which leads to low oxygen in the water and the possibility of fish kills.

Chemicals such as pharmaceutical drugs, dry-cleaning solvents, and gasoline that are used in urban and industrial activities have been found in streams and ground water. After decades of use, pesticides are now widespread in streams and ground water, though they rarely exceed the existing standards and guidelines established to protect human health. A picture of a dust cropping planeSome pesticides have not been used for 20 to 30 years, but they are still detected in fish and streambed sediment at levels that pose a potential risk to human health, aquatic life, and fish-eating wildlife. There are so many chemicals in use today that determining the risk to human health and aquatic life is a complex task. In addition, mixtures of chemicals typically are found in water, but health-based standards and guidelines have not been established for chemical mixtures.

What about bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens in water?

The quality of water for drinking cannot be assured by chemical analyses alone. The presence of bacteria in water, which are normally found in the intestinal tracts of humans and animals, signal that disease-causing pathogens may be present. Giardia and cryptosporidium are pathogens that have been found occasionally in public-water supplies and have caused illness in a large number of people in a few locations. Pathogens can enter our water from leaking septic tanks, wastewater-treatment discharge, and animal wastes.

How can I find out more about my water quality?

Contact your local water supplier and ask for information on the water quality in your area. The USEPA requires public-water suppliers to provide water-quality data to the public on an annual basis in an understandable format. State agencies that deal with health, environmental quality, or water resources also can provide information on the quality of your water. Additional resources can be found on the Internet at:
http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa
http://www.epa.gov/safewater

Division of Water

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Water divisions are belows

Dam Safety
Drinking Water
Floodplain Management
Groundwater
Permitting and Approvals
Public Involvement and Assistance
Statutes and Regulations
Surface Water
404 Program
Wastewater
Water Availability and Use
Water Watch
Quality Assurance
Watersheds

If You are Preparing Your Own Containers of Water

2009-04-27T06:07:00.000-07:00

It is recommended you purchase food-grade water storage containers from surplus or camping supplies stores to use for water storage. Before filling with water, thoroughly clean the containers with dishwashing soap and water, and rinse completely so there is no residual soap. Follow directions below on filling the container with water.

If you choose to use your own storage containers, choose two-liter plastic soft drink bottles – not plastic jugs or cardboard containers that have had milk or fruit juice in them. Milk protein and fruit sugars cannot be adequately removed from these containers and provide an environment for bacterial growth when water is stored in them. Cardboard containers also leak easily and are not designed for long-term storage of liquids. Also, do not use glass containers, because they can break and are heavy.

If storing water in plastic soda bottles, follow these steps
Thoroughly clean the bottles with dishwashing soap and water, and rinse completely so there is no residual soap.Sanitize the bottles by adding a solution of 1 teaspoon of non-scented liquid household chlorine bleach to a quart of water. Swish the sanitizing solution in the bottle so that it touches all surfaces. After sanitizing the bottle, thoroughly rinse out the sanitizing solution with clean water.

Filling Water Containers

Fill the bottle to the top with regular tap water. If the tap water has been commercially treated from a water utility with chlorine, you do not need to add anything else to the water to keep it clean. If the water you are using comes from a well or water source that is not treated with chlorine, add two drops of non-scented liquid household chlorine bleach to the water.Tightly close the container using the original cap. Be careful not to contaminate the cap by touching the inside of it with your finger. Place a date on the outside of the container so that you know when you filled it. Store in a cool, dark place.Replace the water every six months if not using commercially bottled water.

How Much Water do I Need?

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You should have at least a three-day supply of water and you should store at least one gallon of water per person per day. A normally active person needs at least one-half gallon of water daily just for drinking.

Additionally, in determining adequate quantities, take the following into account:

* Individual needs vary, depending on age, physical condition, activity, diet, and climate.

* Children, nursing mothers, and ill people need more water.

* Very hot temperatures can double the amount of water needed.

* A medical emergency might require additional water.

Ground Water

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How does water get into the ground?

When rain falls to the ground, the water does not stop moving. Some of it flows along the land surface to streams or lakes, some is used by plants, some evaporates and returns to the atmosphere, and some seeps into the ground. Water seeps into the ground much like a glass of water poured onto a pile of sand.

As water seeps into the ground, some of it clings to particles of soil or to roots of plants just below the land surface. This moisture provides plants with the water they need to grow. Water not used by plants moves deeper into the ground. The water moves downward through empty spaces or cracks in the soil, sand, or rocks until it reaches a layer of rock through which water cannot easily move. The water then fills the empty spaces and cracks above that layer. The top of the water in the soil, sand, or rocks is called the water table and the water that fills the empty spaces and cracks is called ground water.

Water seeping down from the land surface adds to the ground water and is called recharge water. Ground water is recharged from rain water and snowmelt or from water that leaks through the bottom of some lakes and rivers. Ground water also can be recharged when water-supply systems (pipelines and canals) leak and when crops are irrigated with more water than the plants can use.

At least some ground water can be found almost everywhere. The water table may be deep, such as under a hillside, or shallow such as under a valley. The water table may rise or fall depending on several factors. Heavy rains or melting snow may increase recharge and cause the water table to rise. An extended period of dry weather may decrease recharge and cause the water table to fall.

Who uses ground water?

More than 50 percent of the people in the United States, including almost everyone who lives in rural areas, use ground water for drinking and other household uses. Ground water is also used in some way by about 75 percent of cities and by many factories. The largest use of ground water is to irrigate crops.

How do you get water out of the ground?

Ground water can be obtained by drilling or digging wells. A well is usually a pipe in the ground that fills the ground water. This water can then be brought to the land surface by a pump. Shallow wells may go dry if the water table falls below the bottom of the well, as illustrated at right.

Water leaving an aquifer is called discharge water. Water that is pumped from a well is discharge water. Ground water might also discharge naturally as springs or into swamps, lakes, or rivers.

Some wells, called artesian wells, do not need a pump. These wells are drilled into an artesian aquifer, which is sandwiched between two impermeable layers. Water enters an artesian aquifer in a permeable recharge zone, which can be miles away from the well. When a well is drilled into an artesian aquifer, pressure pushes water in the well above the top of the aquifer. If the pressure is high enough, water can flow from an artesian well.

Illustration showing how a artesian well flows.

Can we run out of ground water?

We can run out of ground water if more water is discharged than recharged. For example, during periods of dry weather, recharge to the aquifers decreases. If too much ground water is pumped during these times, the water table can fall and wells may go dry.

Ground water can become unusable if it becomes polluted and is no longer safe to drink. In areas where the material above the aquifer is permeable, pollutants can seep into ground water. Ground water can be polluted by seepage through landfills, from septic tanks, from leaky underground fuel tanks, and sometimes from fertilizers or pesticides used on farms as shown at right.

When a good quality Water Heater Goes Bad

2009-04-06T01:56:00.000-07:00

I think there’s something wrong with our water heater. Over the last few weeks I’ve noticed a change in the amount of hot water in the house…especially in the evening when it’s bath time for the kids.

I hate it when things break, because I still have so much to learn about home repair. Of course I’ll have the plumber come out and take a look, but I expect to hear that I need a new water heater. I’m not exactly sure how old this one is, but I know that the warranty has expired and what do I know about buying a water heater? Nothing.

I’ve learned that buying a major appliance requires a lot of homework. You really have to think about the features that you need before going to the showroom, because all those shiny new appliances can distract you from thinking about getting the appliance that has all the features you need without paying for things you don’t need.

I always shop for appliances that are EnergyStar rated, that’s always the first thing on my list. Sometimes you can even find tax rebates in your area when you buy EnergyStar appliances. Too bad there are no water heater rebates available for me. It’s not free, but I like the unbiased appliance advice from Consumer Reports.

All I know is that I’m going to do the research and figure out what water heater is right for my family before the old one breaks completely and we’re dirty and there isn’t a clean dish in the house. Who needs that kind of pressure?

Quality of Water

2009-04-03T04:38:00.000-07:00

We monitor water quality in two ways:

Collecting and analysing discrete water samples

Continuous monitoring

Discrete water samples

To meet different management requirements, the NSW Government conducts water quality investigations. Each investigation produces a separate dataset.

Results from one dataset may not be compatible with results from another. Before making use of discrete sample data, it is important to review the purposes for which the data was originally collected, and determine whether it is fit for use for your purposes.

The first step in publishing discrete sample water quality data on the Internet is limited to advising which data is available.

Use the Water Quality Data Availability Water Quality Data Availability page to search for available results. You can search on the name of a river, water storage, or locality to build a list of sample sites in your area of interest.

When you select a site from the site list, a table lists the water quality determinands analysed for samples collected at the site, and the datasets which contain the results. The number of results shown includes results that have not yet completed or which have failed our quality assurance procedures. (Note that less than 0.1% of results have failed and are not used for any natural resource investigation.)

If data is available at sites in which you have an interest, contact us to see if results can be made available.

Continuous monitoring

Continuous monitoring is undertaken at sites in rivers across NSW. Water quality parameters such as temperature and electrical conductivity are monitored and available with other provisional river data such as water level and flow.